...Theories of Psychology AIU Theories of Psychology Cognitive Theory A learning theory in psychology is called Cognitive theory. Cognitive theory helps to explain the human behavior, and focuses on the thought process. The presumption is people make logical choices that are justifiable to them. Psychologist uses information processing to understand the mental process of a human mind, thus looking at similarities between a computer and human mind. Cognitive theory greatly discards behaviorism on the foundation that it lowers the complexity of human behavior, and refers to it as cause and effect. In the past there was a tendency to combine cognitive and behaviorism into one theory, the cognitive behavior theory. Thus, allowing therapist to combine the techniques and assist people in achieving their goals. A subset of cognitive theory is the social cognitive theory. Its main focus is how we learn to imitate the behavior of others. Psychologist uses social cognitive theory to treat certain psychological disorders like phobias (Fritscher, 2011). An example of cognitive behavior is someone is running late for an appointment. They know speeding is wrong, but they justify it with there is no police around, I need to get there on time. Again it’s the way the human mind works and the thought process in justifying why we do certain things, or why it’s okay to do certain things. Behaviorism Behaviorism is a theory that believes behaviors are trainable, changeable, and...
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...Theories of Psychology Unit 1 Individual Project Theories of Psychology What is Psychology? Psychology is science that studies the mind, mental & emotional problems and behavior problems (Editorial Board). Psychology has evolved since its beginning and there are several perspectives (theories) of psychology which include: Behaviorism, Cognitive, Culture and Diversity, Evolutionary, Functionalism, Gestalt, Humanistic, Physiological, Psychodynamic, and Structuralism (Editorial Board). Throughout his paper I will discuss and compare three of these theories which are: Behaviorism, Structuralism and Functionalism. Behaviorism was founded by a man named Ivan Pavlov who was a psychologist that was researching dogs digestion (Editorial Board). Through his research he was able to prove that learning results from rewards or punishment that are associated with a specific behavior his theory was called the behaviorist approach (Editorial Board). John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner continued to research the behaviorist approach in shaping behavior. It is based on the belief that individuals behaviors can be measured, trained and changed (Cherry). In simple terms the Behaviorism theory believes that all behaviors are learned. To be more specific Behaviorism is a theory of learning that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment (Cherry). There are two major types of conditioning: Classic Conditioning and Operant...
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...While a few different schools of thought dominated the early years of psychology, the number of topics studied by psychologists has grown dramatically since the early 1960s. Today, few psychologists identify their outlook according to a particular school of thought. While you may still find some pure behaviorists or psychoanalysts, the majority of psychologists instead categorize their work according to their specialty area and perspective. Every topic in psychology can be looked at in a number of different ways. For example, let’s consider the subject of aggression. Someone who emphasizes a biological perspective would look at the how the brain and nervous system impact aggressive behavior. A professional who stresses a behavioral perspective would look at how environmental variables reinforce aggressive actions. Another psychologist who utilizes a cross-cultural approach might consider how cultural and social influences contribute to aggressive or violent behaviors. The following are just a few of the major perspectives in modern psychology. The Biological Perspective The study of physiology played a major role in the development of psychology as a separate science. Today, this perspective is known as biological psychology. Sometimes referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology, this perspective emphasizes the physical and biological bases of behavior. This perspective has grown significantly over the last few decades, especially with advances in our...
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...Theories in Psychology Unit One Individual Project SSCI206-1204A-13 August 25, 2012 Abstract This essay will analyze main theories of psychology in today’s world. Each generation develops a technique that makes diagnosis of a patient easier. The following essay will focus on three of the key theories used today. References will follow the body of the essay to back up any information used from a source. Theories in Psychology Emily Dickenson once said, “The brain is wider than the sky." In today’s society with technology thriving and medical advancements around every corner, the sky is the limit where psychology is concern. There are new theories being proved true on a daily basis. The following text will have three of the many theories proved to be true over the centuries before us. Psychodynamic Theory Psychodynamic is defined as an interaction between conscious and unconscious mental states. This will affect the personality, attitude and behavior patterns in a person (Definition of Psychodynamic, 2000). In recent studies, the military psychologists have been using this theory on PTSD patients just coming home from war. This theory and its techniques are implemented over several sessions and the patient is evaluated over time to see how effective the treatment plan has worked (Tull, M., Ph.D., 2012, January 29). The process of psychodynamic therapy can often be stressful on the patient but with the right doctor, those stressful feelings can be redirected to a better...
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...mental processes. The primary tenet of this school of thought is that behaviour is a response to a stimulus determined by a previous experience of similar events or stimuli. A useful link: http://www.psychlotron.org.uk/newResources/approaches/AS_AQB_approaches_BehaviourismBasics.pdf Cybernetics Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary approach to exploring regulatory feedback systems, their structures, constraints and possibilities. What I gain from this theory is the idea of feedback and reciprocal effects. I have come to perceive the mind as being interconnected with the environment in a 2-way system, each and responding to the other Cognitivism In contradiction to Behaviouralists, Cognitivists are primarily concerned with thinking and brain function in order to explain behaviour. Behaviorists acknowledged the existence of thinking, but identified it as a behavior. Cognitivists argued that the way people think impacts their behavior and therefore cannot be a behavior in and of itself. Constructivism This theory suggests that that human knowledge is actively constructed. It stemmed from a critique of the “associationist” approach, which postulates that the mind is a passive receiver of information from its environment that, through knowing, produces a copy in the act of knowing, it is the human mind that actively gives meaning and order to that reality to which it is responding” Embodied Cognition Embodied mind theorists believe that just as the mind influences...
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...THE PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY This theory was proposed by Sigmund Freud which he believed that a child passes five major stages in which the pleasure‐seeking energies of the ‘id’ become focused on certain erogenous areas. These stages are the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. If psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy behavior or personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation occurs. Fixation is the tendency to stay at a particular if not properly satisfied on its appropriate period. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY This theory was proposed by Erick Erickson. His theory states that human’s lifespan undergo the Eight (8) Stages of major crises or conflict. This theory describes the impact of social experience of a person across the whole lifespan. He believed that human beings are rational creatures whose thoughts, feelings and actions are largely controlled by the ego. Individuals must first understand the realities of the social world in order to adapt successfully. The Eight Stages across the human’s lifespan are as follows: a. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – from 0 to 1 year old or the Infancy Stage b. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt – from 1 to 3 years old or the Early Childhood Stage c. Initiative vs. Guilt – from 3 to 6 years old or the Middle Childhood Stage d. Industry vs. Inferiority – from 6 to 12 years old or the Late Childhood Stage ...
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...In the book Theories of Development Psychology, chapter 2 reflects on Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory and the Neo-Piagetian. Where it is discussed the Stage Approach that Piaget claims to be the cognitive development that proceeds from different stages. Piaget believed that a stage is a period of time where the child is experiencing the thinking process and behavior to situations under a mental structure that develops between an age group that will categorize their stage. On the other hand, chapter 5 discusses the Social Learning Theory where it concentrates on the observational learning that models of an environment where it focuses on the socialization that the society attempts to teach children the way they need to behave as adults. In which...
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...Learning theories has been a subject of great interest in psychology ,this makes it fundamental to teaching and learning.The essay will assess contributions of educational psychology with reference to learning theories in teaching and learning .Key terms will be discussed in the next paragraph .The conclusion shall synthesize learning theories and the contribution of educational psychology and their educational implications . https://en.m.wikipedia.org / learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed, processed and retained during learning .That is learning theories helps to predict and explain relationship between learning conditions and the learning outcomes. Zindi,Peresuh and Mpofu,(1997) says “educational psychology is knowledge gained from psychology and applied to activities of the classroom.” Santrock (2011) deals with human behavior and its application in education .According to the above two definitions educational psychology refers to the provision to the teachers with theories which help them to be flexible and adaptable to different situations which can happen in the teaching and learning at primary and secondary level. Educational psychology contributes a lot in the teaching and learning. It helps the teacher in selecting materials suitable for learners and suitable teaching methodologies. When the teacher is well versed with theories, he or she find how to explain, describe and control behavior. In the classroom, when the teacher...
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...Guide to Writing a Basic Essay Write the Body Paragraphs In the body of the essay, all the preparation up to this point comes to fruition. The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued. Each main idea that you wrote down in your diagram or outline will become one of the body paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas, you will have three or four body paragraphs. Each body paragraph will have the same basic structure. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form. If your main idea is "reduces freeway congestion," you might say this: Public transportation reduces freeway congestion. Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave four or five lines in between each point. In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point. Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion. Supporting Point Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public transportation rather than driving. Elaboration Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil changes. Of course, less driving time means savings on gasoline as well. In many cases, these savings amount to more than the cost of riding public transportation. If you wish, include a summary sentence for each paragraph. This is not generally needed, however, and such sentences have a tendency to sound stilted,...
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...To what extent does biological psychology contribute to our understanding of human emotion? This essay will briefly consider some definitions and early theories of emotion. It will evaluate evidence from studies which suggests that biological psychology makes a major contribution to our understanding of human emotion. It will, however, acknowledge that there are limitations to the biological aspect of emotion, and that interaction with other areas of psychology including evolutionary, developmental, cognitive and social must also be considered. Finally, it will include ways in which this knowledge can be applied. Watson (1924, cited in Plutchik 1994, p 3) suggests ‘An emotion is a hereditary pattern-reaction involving profound changes of the bodily mechanisms….’ McLean (1963, cited in Plutchik 1994, p3) suggests ‘Emotional feelings guide our behaviour with respect to the two basic life principles of self-preservation and the preservation of the species.’ Arguably, these definitions allude to evolutionary nature and innateness of emotion, but the former refers also to physiological changes. Plutchik (1994) highlights some confusion over what qualifies as an emotion, and suggests that emotions are goal orientated: - emotion fear – goal escape. Lewis, Sullivan, Stanger and Weiss (1989, cited in Slater & Muir, 1999) distinguish between the primary emotions of joy, fear, anger, sadness, disgust and surprise, found in babies, and the secondary emotions of embarrassment...
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...Discussion on how theory and research in health psychology has been helpful or unhelpful in addressing human problems. Areas important in health psychology involve studies of behaviour which courses illness and also a way to try motivate individuals to leave healthy with the influence from hospitals and care professionals in the society. ‘Health psychology is the aggregate of the specific educational, scientific and professional contribution of the discipline of psychology to the promotion and maintenance of health, the prevention and treatment of illnesses’ Matarazzo (1980). As health psychology is widely related to health the definition of healthy is by the World Health Organization (WHO) 1948 saying that health is ‘the state of complete physical, social and spiritual well-being, not simply the absences of illnesses’. As psychology is the science of behaviour and change; psychologists have helped to influence change in people’s life. As health psychology is interested mainly in health and health maintenance rather than on diseases and disease prevention. It was found in the 1970s when many countries (western) began to suffer from diseases and death in result to declining expenditures, to resolve the situation health promotion strategies were introduced. As there are many factors that courses diseases for example smoking which leads to diseases like cardiovascular disease, to investigate the relationship between health behaviours, health and disease outcomes studies would...
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...Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. It uses the scientific method to address the fundamental questions about the human mind and behavior (Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., & Wegner, D. M. 2). However, in recent years there has been controversy as to whether psychology constitutes as a real science. What is science? One can define science as the knowledge or study of the natural world based on facts learned through experiments and observations (Merriam-Webster). Psychology uses experiments and observations to analyze data and statistics to form hypothesis and predictions. People can benefit from psychology because, without it, people would not understand the problems of child abuse, autism, and mental disorders, which has an impact on society. However, in an article by Alex B. Berezow, he argued that psychology is not a science because “it doesn’t meet the five basic requirements for a field to be considered scientifically rigorous: clearly defined terminology, quantifiability, highly controlled experimental conditions, reproducibility and, finally, predictability and testability” ("Why Psychology isn’t Science"). Psychology is a science because it employs the scientific method to analyze the human mind and behavior and correlates it to the function of society. The components of the scientific method are theories, hypothesizes, predictions, experiments, and results. Psychologists make observations about the function of society, which uses the scientific...
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...race, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and culture) has mostly evolved independently. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to examine each of these dimensions of diversity to describe common themes across dimensions and to develop an integrative model of diversity. © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. While the term “workforce diversity” is commonly used in scholarly articles as well as in the popular press, the focus and scope of the research is both varied and broad. Until recently, most studies have focused on a single dimension of diversity (e.g., age, sex, race) in a domestic, typically U.S. context. In a world of globalization populated by boundaryless and virtual organizations, it is time to revisit the old theories of diversity and to create a new set of paradigms. Therefore, in this article we examine multiple dimensions of diversity to assess the current status of the...
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...Research, Statistics, and Psychology To understand thoroughly something a person must understand its background and conduct research. According to Bing Dictionary (2012), research is an organized way to study something; that can include an investigation to uncover facts, to create a theory or correct a previous one, or to make a plan based upon the discovered facts. A person cannot conduct or make connections in research without the use of statistics. Statistics can be just about any compilation of information on any subject in use with performance, time management, effectiveness, budgeting, and many more. Both research and statistics are important components in psychology. This paper will discuss the role of research and statistics within psychology. Examining what research and the scientific method are, comparing and contrasting the characteristics of primary and secondary data, and explaining the role of statistics within research. Role of Research and Statistics Research is a vital component in just about any field for advancement of a product or idea, especially in psychology. As stated above research is an organized way to study something. Because psychology is a field that tries to understand human thinking and behavior it is necessary that research be a vital component. Research is important to psychology because it provides pertinent information about the way a person may think or behave and forming an idea or opinion as a response from the conducted research. A...
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...Essay Guide for A2 Psychology What types of questions will there be? In AS Psychology you learned how to write short 8/10/12 mark answers, in which the AO1 and AO2 marks were divided equally. In A2, the essays are 24 marks each and you get 8 marks for AO1 and 16 marks for AO2/3/Issues, Debates and Approaches (IDA). So, you need to make a lot more evaluative points in A2! Here are some 24 mark questions from past papers: Topic: Relationships Discuss the influence of childhood experiences on adult relationships. (8 marks + 16 marks) Topic: Eating Behaviour Discuss explanations of one eating disorder. (8 marks + 16 marks) The questions can also be ‘parted’ like these: Topic: Eating Behaviour Discuss the role of one or more factors that influence attitudes to food. (4 marks + 8 marks) Outline and evaluate the role of neural mechanisms in controlling eating. (4 marks + 8 marks) Topic: Aggression Outline the role of genetic factors in aggressive behaviour. (4 marks) Outline and evaluate one social psychological theory of aggression. (4 marks + 16 marks) So it’s important to know when and how much AO1 and AO2/3/IDA to write. Also, don’t skip revising any parts of topics as they might come up in the parted questions. Different types of evaluation. AO2: This is where you provide evidence to support an AO1 idea e.g. about a theory, model or study. AO3: In AS you did this as part of AO2. AO3 is where you comment on the strengths...
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