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Memahami Birokrasi Sebagai Alat Pengurusan Sesebuah Negara

Oleh:-
Lutfan bin Jaes lutfan@uthm.edu.my ABSTRAK

Tulisan ini adalah berkenaan Birokrasi, yang merupakan satu istilah popular dikalangan umum apabila membicarakan tentang pengurusan dan pentadbiran organisasi kerajaan. Aktornya dipanggil birokrat dan organisasinya merujuk kepada perkataan biro. Kepelbagaian perspektif melihat birokrasi menyebabkan ia menjadi satu konsep yang sukar difahami secara jelas. Ilmu Birokrasi itu sendiri dilihat sebagai sangat luas dan analitikalnya sangat bergantung kepada fahaman, mazhab dan isi kandungan masing-masing dalam sesebuah negara yang mengamalnya. Penulisan ini akan menyentuh serba sedikit sejarah, perkembangan, ciri-ciri, dan kepentingan birokrasi bagi tujuan umum. Kritikan terhadap birokrasi juga diperlihatkan bagi tujuan timbang tara pembaca. Juga ditulis serba sedikit birokrasi dan hubungannya secara langsung dengan pentadbiran awam sesebuah negara yang biasa banyak dirujuk oleh semua pihak yang menjadi ahli dalam sesebuah masyarakat.

Kata Kunci : Birokrasi, Birokrat, Biro

Pendahuluan

Seringkali orang awam mengaitkan birokrasi dengan cara urustadbir tidak cekap, red tape (pita merah), rigid, kepatuhan melampau dan pelbagai prosedur yang membebankan dalam sesebuah organisasi kerajaan. Pengurusannya di sektor kerajaan seringkali dibuat perbandingan yang salah, kurang sesuai dan tidak tepat dengan pengurusan di sektor swasta. Tanpa disedari, simptom-simptom yang wujud dan diperbandingkan itu hanyalah merupakan kesan negatif daripada pelaksanaan sistem pengurusan Birokrasi yang gagal oleh birokrat-birokratnya.

Birokrasi Secara Umum

Birokrasi merupakan satu pertubuhan rasmi yang mempunyai struktur khusus dan mempunyai bahagian-bahagian lain yang bersifat tertentu. Ia juga merujuk kepada satu organisasi rasmi (satu unit sosial) yang ditubuhkan untuk mencapai objektif dan matlamat tertentu yang telah ditetapkan bersama. Birokrasi juga ialah tahap-tahap dalam struktur bagi unit-unit dalam sesebuah organisasi. Birokrasi awam dikatakan sebagai pentadbiran awam dan merupakan jentera kepada pentadbiran kerajaan dalam menjalankan peranan penting bagi mengendalikan kerajaan.

Perkembangan Konsep Birokrasi

Menurut Morstein Marx dalam Heady (1991), perkataan birokrasi pertama kali digunakan pada kurun ke 19 sebagai merujuk kepada pentadbiran kerajaan negara Perancis yang disebut sebagai bureaucratie. Birokrasi merujuk kepada sehelai kain yang menutupi meja-meja pegawai kerajaan Perancis dalam abad ke 19. Istilah biro menghubungkan unsur-unsur peraturan kerajaan yang penting. Ia dikatakan berlaku ketika perjuangan pemerintahan raja mutlak dalam Revolusi Perancis. Pada kurun yang sama juga, negara Jerman turut menggunakan perkataan burokratie sebagai merujuk kepada pemerintahan kerajaannya.

Terdapat sumber lain menyatakan birokrasi berasal daripada perkataan biro dan telahpun digunakan seawal abad ke 18 lagi di Eropah Barat. Ia dirujuk sebelum Revolusi Perancis lagi iaitu pada tahun 1979 dan tersebar pantas ke negara-negara lain. Akhiran bahasa Greek – kratia atau kratos – bermaksud kuasa atau pemerintahan. Oleh itu, birokrasi bermaksud kuasa pejabat atau pemerintahan pejabat, iaitu pemerintahan golongan pegawai. Dalam perspektif lain, birokrasi ialah sebuah konsep sosiologi dan sains politik yang merujuk kepada cara bagaimana pentadbiran melaksanakan dan menguatkuasakan peraturan-peraturan yang sah secara sosial.

Ciri-Ciri Am Birokrasi

Hierarki merupakan ciri paling utama dan paling penting dalam sebuah organisasi birokrasi. Hierarki menghubungkan prinsip-prinsip dan tahap dalam autoriti yang menentukan sistem kakitangan pengurusan dan kakitangan bawahan di mana kakitangan pengurusan akan menyelia kakitangan bawahan. Sistem yang formal ini penting demi menentukan hala tuju, kekuatan dan kesinambungan dalam sesuatu bentuk pentadbiran.

Birokrasi juga adalah berkaitan dengan kerasionalan. Ia merujuk kepada para birokrat yang mempunyai tanggungjawab menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi secara rasional dan mereka perlu mengambil berat terhadap keputusan yang diambil. Ini kerana keputusan yang diambil hendaklah dapat menolong mereka mencapai matlamat organisasi. Penyelesaian masalah bukan sahaja memberi faedah kepada organisasi malah yang lebih penting kepada rakyat.

Pengkhususan kerja di dalam sistem birokrasi adalah sangat diperlukan. Oleh yang demikian adalah penting untuk melantik seseorang berdasarkan kelayakannya (merit). Selain daripada itu satu sistem kenaikan pangkat yang baik (berdasarkan keupayaan diri dan senioriti) perlu diwujudkan bagi memastikan individu kekal di dalam organisasi serta memberi jaminan dalam kerjaya dan kehidupan meraka.

Birokrasi Ala Weber

Max Weber (1864-1920) merupakan antara pengkaji konsep birokrasi paling terperinci dan popular. Kajian serta kritikan pengkaji lain berkaitan dengan birokrasi biasanya akan merujuk kepada analitikal beliau. Malah amalan mazhab birokrasi pada masa kini kebanyakkannya mengambilkira apa yang telah dimulakan oleh Weber.

Sebenarnya beliau tidak pernah memberi satu definasi tentang birokrasi secara jelas. Weber dalam Robbins (1987) mendefinasikan organisasi berdasarkan dua aspek penting iaitu:

i) Jentera sosial yang akan memaksimumkan kecekapan dalam pentadbiran; dan

ii) Satu organisasi sosial yang mempunyai sifat-sifat tertentu.

Definisi organisasi Weber melibatkan ciri-ciri pekerjaan secara asas, perkhidmatan seseorang pentadbir yang dilantik, status seseorang pentadbir yang diserlahkan melalui hierarki dalam organisasi, terimaan gaji berdasarkan kedudukan pangkat dan pangkat yang telah ditetapkan terlebih dahulu.

Weber juga dalam Ramanathan (1993) menyatakan ciri-ciri masyarakat dalam sesebuah negara birokrasi ialah kewujudan pembangunan kewangan, ekonomi, mengisi organisasi yang besar dengan pekerjaan dan sumber, keupayaan cara moden untuk berhubung, penerimaan budaya rasionaliti dalam pentadbiran, pembuatan keputusan dan kuasa sah berdasarkan pemberian kuasa terhadap seorang ketua dan kupayaan untuk mengumpul kuasa.

Birokrasi juga dikatakan mempunyai keupayaan mempengaruhi keadaan organisasi sosial seperti melatih bakal pegawai tadbir berasaskan kelayakan teknikal dan keupayaan untuk memperlihatkan unsur-unsur demokrasi dalam kehidupan politik dan pentadbiran negara.

Weber berpendapat kecekapan birokrasi harus lahir daripada sifat organisasi itu sendiri. Dalam organisasi, pegawai-pegawainya dikawal oleh undang-undang. Ia disusun mengikut hierarki yang berturut antara satu pangkat dengan pangkat yang lain.

Dalam birokrasi juga maklumat dapat disimpan dengan selamat dan teratur. Satu pembahagian yang nyata antara urusan peribadi dengan urusan pejabat sangat berkesan diwujudkan. Dalam mencari orang yang benar-benar layak bagi mengisi satu-satu jawatan, hanya orang yang mempunyai kelayakan yang sesuai sahaja yang akan dipilih.

Satu perkara yang baik bagi birokrasi ialah kebolehannya untuk menjangkakan apa yang mungkin berlaku akibat daripada tindakannya. Ia juga mengganggap sistem kapitalis adalah penggalak utama birokrasi. Ini disebabkan keupayaan birokrasi untuk membantu dunia kapitalis bagi mencapai matlamatnya. Ditambah lagi dengan kecekapan dan peraturan yang ketat, pentadbiran birokrasi perlu bagi mana-mana jangkaan ekonomi jangka panjang.

Ciri-Ciri Birokrasi Weber

Weber dalam Ahmad Martadha (2003) mengenalpasti tujuh ciri birokrasi dalam organisasi iaitu:

i) Aktiviti biasa yang perlu dilakukan, dilaksanakan dalam cara yang telah ditetapkan sebagai sebahagian daripada tugas. ii) Kelayakan dalam bidang-bidang tertentu menjadi asas pembahagian pekerjaan secara sistematik. Terdapat perbezaan nyata antara jenis pekerjaan berdasarkan kelayakan. iii) Pekerja dikenakan sekatan, peraturan yang sistematik dan kawalan dalam mengurus pejabatnya. iv) Semua operasi dilaksanakan dengan sistem yang selaras dengan peraturan yang telah ditetapkan. v) Terdapat ketegasan dalam penggunaan peraturan pada sesetengah keadaan berdasarkan hierarki organisasi. Bahagian yang paling bawah akan dikawal oleh pihak yang di atas. vi) Pegawai-pegawai diberikan kuasa berdasarkan tanggungjawab yang dipikul oleh mereka. vii) Sistem naik pangkat dalam birokrasi biasanya dilakukan dengan mengukur pencapaian dan senioriti seseorang atau kedua-duanya sekali.
Teori birokrasi oleh Weber membantu organisasi dari segi merangka corak aliran autoriti yang jelas dan bersistem dalam organisasi. Walaupun ada pendapat yang menyatakan ia akan mewujudkan karenah birokrasi tetapi ia sekurang-kurangnya dapat mewujudkan prosedur yang harus diikuti oleh semua orang.

Penekanan juga diberikan kepada usaha membentuk sebuah organisasi yang berkesan dan cekap. Untuk tujuan tersebut, Weber menyarankan agar perhatian harus diberikan kepada soal pengambilan calon pekerja yang berkualiti, mempunyai kelayakan yang sesuai dan penempatan yang betul. Personel dalam organisasi birokrasi juga akan terkawal kerana mereka terikat dengan undang-undang.

Kritikan Terhadap Konsep Birokrasi Weber

Ramai tokoh penting terutamanya dalam bidang pentadbiran awam berpendapat konsep rasionaliti dan penguatkuasaan terhadap peraturan bagi mengawal penjawat awam akan menjadi penghalang kepada usaha matlamat yang telah ditetapkan bersama. Merton dalam Tasie (1997) menyatakan bahawa kebergantungan terhadap peraturan akan menyebabkan pekerja dalam organisasi birokrasi sukar menerima perubahan seperti melaksanakan tugas mengikut kesesuaian keadaan. Disamping itu faktor tidak dipengaruhi oleh perasaan dalam berurusan dengan pelanggan akan membawa kesan yang negatif kepada pelanggan yang merasakan mereka tidak dilayan dengan sebaik mungkin.

Talcott Parson dalam Albrow (1970) pula menyatakan bahawa seseorang pegawai atasan tidak semestinya sesuai memberi arahan kepada orang bawahannya terutamanya melibatkan perkara-perkara yang bukan didalam kepakarannya. Sebagai contoh kajian yang dibuat di Amerika Syarikat menunjukkan bahawa jururawat-jururawat lebih cenderung untuk memenuhi arahan pegawai atasan mereka yang berkelayakan daripada pegawai yang mempunyai hierarki yang sama tetapi tidak mempunyai kelayakan.

Kritikan lain mengenai model Birokrasi yang digunapakai ialah dalam pentadbiran sesebuah kerajaan adalah berpaksikan kepada perkembangan politik, ekonomi dan sosial negara-negara maju seperti Eropah Barat dan Amerika Syarikat. Negara-negara ini kebanyakannya mempunyai ciri-ciri yang sama. Oleh itu teori birokrasi yang diamalkan dinegara tersebut tidak boleh berfungsi dengan baik jika diaplikasikan di negara-negara membangun yang mempunyai struktur pemerintahan, sistem sosial, politik dan eknomi yang berbeza. Oleh itu Heady (1991) mencadangkan agar birokrasi serta sistem politik dan pentadbiran negara-negara membangun mestilah mengambil kira faktor-faktor persekitaran, kuasa-kuasa berpengaruh dan agen-agen yang bertanggungjawab dalam proses modifikasi struktur pentadbiran jika birokrasi ingin berperanan bagi meningkatkan kecekapan dalam pentadbiran birokrasi negara-negara tersebut.

Birokrasi Dalam Pandangan Karl Marx

Karl Marx dalam Capital (1967) telah menyarankan kepada teorinya yang berasaskan pergolakan masa hadapan kelas (class struggle) dalam masyarakat kapitalis. Beliau berpendapat, negara yang mempunyai pentadbiran birokrasi ialah alat bagi golongan yang berkuasa. Oleh itu terdapat beberapa pembahagian masyarakat mengikut kelas. Birokrasi cara ini merupakan satu cara untuk menindas masyarakat kelas bawahan dan masyarakat amnya. Dengan semakin besar pembahagian dan pergolakan antara kelas dalam masyarakat makan semakin ketaralah penindasan dalam negara tersebut. Oleh itu menurut Marx, peningkatan birokrasi dalam masyarakat kapitalis membawa kepada peningkatan kepada ketegangan dan pergolakan antara kelas-kelas. Maka akan berlakulah bereaucratization secara perlahan-lahan. Maka negara birokrasi akan hilang dan digantikan pula dengan masyarakat komunis yang tidak berkelas.

Birokrasi Berperwakilan

Konsep birokrasi berperwakilan ialah kedudukan jentera pentadbiran serta kakitangannya yang mencerminkan susunan masyarakat. Ramanathan (1993) menyatakan birokrasi sesebuah kerajaan patut menunjukkan nisbah suku-suku kaum yang terdapat dalam sesebuah negara. Menurut konsep birokrasi berperwakilan, semua kumpulan sama ada berdasarkan suku kaum, agama, ras dan jantina akan diberi peluang untuk penyertaan dalam proses pemerintahan. Lazimnya wakil-wakil mereka akan diberi peluang dalam penyertaan pembentukan dasar-dasar kerajaan serta diberi pelbagai perlindungan supaya rakyat jelata menikmati layanan yang sama tanpa mengira tanpa mengira asal usul, jantina atau suku kaum. Menurut pendirian ini jentera pentadbiran atau birokrasi haruslah mencerminkan aspek-aspek asas prinsip demokrasi khususnya dari segi kakitangan yang mengendalikan badan pentadbiran. Diharapkan jika komposisi jentera pentadbiran setimpal dengan komposisi masyarakat maka ia dapat bertindak lebih responsif terhadap masalah yang dihadapi oleh rakyat jelata.

Pendorong utama terhadap perlunya birokrasi berperwakilan ialah untuk menjamin keadilan masyarakat. Sebuah kerajaan bercorak demokratik bukan sahaja perlu bertindak bereaksi terhadap kehendak rakyat jelata, malah perlu berusaha kearah menyediakan berbagai-bagai kemudahan asas yang dinikmati secara adil dan saksama. Oleh sebab kerajaan melalui jentera birokrasi merupakan pihak yang paling penting dari segi menyediakan peluang pekerjaan maka seharuslah menggunakan pertimbangan yang adil untuk mengisi keperluan kakitangannya.

Namun demikian idea asal birokrasi berperwakilan bermula di Amerika Syarikat yang mana pada masa itu keperluannya dilihat ketika pembentukan awal perkembangan sejarah moden negara mereka. Harus diingat seringkali teori dan saranan dalam cabang pecahan birokrasi adalah sesuai terpakai bagi menyelesaikan masalah dinegara-negara tertentu sahaja terutamanya bagi negara yang mempunyai punca dan dasar masalah yang sama. Tetapi ia belum tentu sesuai dan boleh diaplikasikan pada negara-negara yang lain walaupun punca dan dasar masalahnya dilihat hampir sama tetapi sebenarnya tidak serupa.

Sebagai contoh bagi negara kita Malaysia, teras birokrasi berperwakilan dilihat sangat sesuai untuk diaplikasikan dan memenuhi tuntutan-tuntutan bagi rakyat yang pelbagai bangsa. Namun Malaysia harus dilihat terbina atas dasar persefahaman kaum yang telah dipersetujui sejak 1957 dimana Perlembagaan Persekutuan dan Kontrak Sosial merupakan panduan dan pegangan utama. Keadilan dalam satu perspektif yang sama tidak boleh dilakukan di Malaysia kerana ia mampu mewujudkan ketegangan di antara kaum dengan cara yang lain.

Kepentingan Konsep Birokrasi Dari Aspek Ekonomi

Kepentingan birokrasi boleh dilihat dari dua aspek iaitu aspek monopoli dan aspek pemintaan/penawaran. Monopoli mengesyorkan bahawa kepentingan birokrasi kerajaan berpunca daripada faktor-faktor bahawa ia diberi kuasa dan dibiayai oleh badan perundangan (parlimen) untuk menjadi sole provider sebanyak mana barangan dan perkhidmatan yang diperlukan oleh rakyat.

Pendekatan kedua digunakan oleh ahli-ahli ekonomi berkenaan dengan permintaan barang dan perkhidmatan yang dibekalkan oleh para birokrat seperti pertahanan negara. Dengan adanya pertahanan negara yang kukuh sudah tentu rakyat dalam negara itu akan lebih terjamin keselamatannya dan segala aktiviti ekonomi, politik, sosial dan sebagainya akan berjalan dengan lancar.

Kepentingan Konsep Birokrasi Dari Aspek Politik

Peranan birokrasi dalam politik mempunyai kaitan dengan kepentingannya sebagai alat kuasa atau punca dasar. Menurut Nadel dan Rouke dalam Fred Greenstein dan Nelson Polsby (1965) menyatakan kuasa mereka didapati daripada kepakaran yang datangnya daripada tiga cara iaitu pertama mereka menasihatkan pemimpin politik dan boleh mendorong dalam penukaran dasar, kedua birokrat bertanggungjawab menjalankan sesuatu dasar dan akhir sekali birokrat mempunyai kuasa budi bicara ketika ia menjalankan dasar-dasar.

Birokrat mempunyai pengawalan yang penting terhadap pelaksanaan dasar. Cawangan perundangan (parlimen) biasanya menubuhkan jabatan baru, agensi atau biro untuk menjalankan kebanyakan daripada undang-undang baru. Bagaimana, bila dan ke tahap mana dasar kerajaan dijalankan, kebiasaanya dianggap terlalu spesifik untuk penglibatan pihak perundangan (parlimen) dan ia diberikan kepada birokrat untuk menetapkannya.

Kepentingan Konsep Birokrasi Dari Aspek Psikologi

Bagi ahli psikologi, kepentingan birokrasi terletak pada siapa yang menjadi ahli organisasi. Psikologi menyarankan kaedah saintifik berkenaan dengan pilihan berasaskan pengukuran sikap individu dalam istilah keperluan birokratik.

Selepas itu ahli psikologi mendekati masalah organisasi melalui pelbagai tahap penyelidikan kepentingan organisasi birokrasi sehingga menjadi lebih jelas. Dengan memahami sistem sosial birokrasi, boleh membawa kepada pengertian penting tentang pencapaian matlamat birokrasi, interaksi antara sistem sosial birokrasi dan sistem-sistem sosial lain dan desakan individu dalam sistem sosial birokrasi terhadap individu di luar.

Birokrasi dan Pentadbiran Awam

Birokrasi dan pentadbiran awam mempunyai hubungan rapat. Birokrasi melambangkan jentera dan organisasi pentadbiran sesuatu negara sementara pentadbiran awam meliputi semua aspek birokrasi. Perkara yang penting dalam aspek ini ialah birokrasi dan pentadbiran awam sama-sama mementingkan masyarakat atau kepentingan awam berbanding daripada kepentingan individu.

Pembangunan, kemajuan serta perkembangan dalam pentadbiran awam berjalan seiring dengan birokrasi dan birokrasi yang lebih efesyen dan moden membawa kepada kemajuan masyarakat dalam sesebuah negara. Untuk mendapat sistem birokrasi yang lebih berkesan, kajian yang lebih berkesan dan mendalam patut ditumpukan terhadap pentadbiran awam dan pentadbiran awam dapat membantu menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi oleh birokrasi awam menerusi aktiviti penyelidikan dan perundingan ahli-ahli pendidikan pentadbiran awam. Pengetahuan dalam kajian pentadbiran awam juga membolehkan seseorang warganegara dalam negara demokrasi meneliti dan menilai aktiviti dan birokrasi awam.

Akhir sekali, tanpa mengambil kira sistem pengurusan Islam, sistem Birokrasi dilihat merupakan pilihan terbaik bagi mengurus sebuah organisasi dan sesebuah negara yang besar. Perbandingannya yang kerap kali dibuat oleh masyarakat umum dengan pengurusan organisasi di sektor swasta merupakan satu perbandingan yang salah yang berpunca dari salah faham awal berkenaan dengan apa itu Birokrasi.

Penghargaan

Penulis ingin merakamkan jutaan terima kasih kepada K. Ramanathan kerana penulisan ini sebenarnya banyak mendapat panduan dan aspirasi daripada penulisan beliau dalam bukunya Konsep Asas Pentadbiran Awam terbitan Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (1993). Terima kasih tidak terhingga juga kepada kumpulan penulis-penulis Siri Modul Kendiri PJJ Universiti Utara Malaysia yang juga merupakan guru penulis semasa menjadi pelajar atas cedokan artikel mereka yang telah diolah semula oleh penulis.

Rujukan

Buku

Abdullah Sanusi Ahmad 1987. Kerajaan dan Pentadbiran Malaysia. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Heper, M 1987. The State and Public Bureaucracies. A Comparative Perspective. Prentice-Hall Inc.

Intitut Tadbiran Awam Malaysia 1991. Malaysia Kita. Kuala Lumpur. Institut Tadbiran Awam Malaysia.

K. Ramanathan 1993. Konsep Asas Pentadbiran Awam. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Modul

Ahmad Martadha dan Rakan 2007. Asas Pentadbiran Awam. Universiti Utara Malaysia.

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