...Quantum mechanics Rohan Agarwal It is common knowledge that matter is comprised of particles. Or is it? We all think that light consists of waves. How true are these claims? Although it may seem counterintuitive on the surface, various experiments and supporting theories have proved that the line between what is particulate and what is wavelike is finer than we imagine. At a fundamental, sub-atomic level, matter and light are both wavelike and particulate; it is only on the macroscopic scale that the divisions become better defined. The study of the physical laws that govern the realm of the very small, such as atoms, protons, and the like; developed from Planck’s quantum principle and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle are termed as quantum mechanics. The principles of quantum mechanics revolve around two major theories- the wave-particle duality, and, in extension to this, the theory that it is possible for absolutely small particles to be in two different states at the same time. Theoretical physicists have arrived at these conclusions after powerful observations of experiments, and these will be discussed in due course. Before doing so, it is imperative to understand that this quantum strangeness does not transfer to the macroscopic world, and so some claims in this article will seem absurd. In order to demonstrate this, Erwin Schrodinger published a paper in 1935, containing a thought experiment, now popularly known as Schrodinger’s cat. A cat is put in a steel chamber...
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...Quantum mechanics is an area of physics dealing with phenomena where the action is of the order of the Planck constant. The Planck constant is a very tiny amount and so this domain of physics is typically on the distance and momentum scale of atoms and elementary particles in general. Action is a general physical concept related to dynamics and is most easily recognized in the form of angular momentum. The most tangible way of expressing the essence of quantum mechanics is that we live in a universe of quantized angular momentum and the Planck constant is the quantum. A tangible result of the quantization of angular momentum is the existence of discrete electron orbitals, each with a principal quantum number and each orbital with an associated angular momentum that is an integer multiple of the Planck constant. Quantum mechanics has many implications on the microscopic scale, some of which are obscure and even counter intuitive. Classical physics explains matter and energy at the macroscopic level of the scale familiar to human experience, including the behavior of astronomical bodies. It remains the key to measurement for much of modern science and technology. On the other hand, at the end of the 19th century scientists discovered phenomena in both the large (macro) and the small (micro) worlds that classical physics could not explain. Coming to terms with these limitations led to the development of quantum mechanics, a major revolution in physics. This article describes how...
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...Quantum mechanics (QM – also known as quantum physics, or quantum theory) is a branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. Quantum mechanics departs from classical mechanics primarily at the quantum realm of atomic and subatomic length scales. QM provides a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. In advanced topics of quantum mechanics, some of these behaviors are macroscopic and only emerge at extreme (i.e., very low or very high) energies or temperatures. The name quantum mechanics derives from the observation that some physical quantities can change only in discrete amounts (Latin quanta), and not in a continuous (cf. analog) way. For example, the angular momentum of an electron bound to an atom or molecule is quantized.[1] In the context of quantum mechanics, the wave–particle duality of energy and matter and the uncertainty principle provide a unified view of the behavior of photons, electrons, and other atomic-scale objects. The mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics are abstract. A mathematical function called the wavefunction provides information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle. Mathematical manipulations of the wavefunction usually involve the bra-ket notation, which requires an understanding of complex numbers and linear functionals. The wavefunction...
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...Quantum mechanics (QM – also known as quantum physics, or quantum theory) is a branch of physics which deals with physical phenomena at nanoscopic scales, where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. It departs from classical mechanics primarily at the quantum realm of atomic and subatomic length scales. Quantum mechanics provides a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. It is the non-relativistic limit of quantum field theory (QFT), a theory that was developed later that combined quantum mechanics with relativity. In advanced topics of quantum mechanics, some of these behaviors are macroscopic (see macroscopic quantum phenomena) and emerge at only extreme (i.e., very low or very high) energies or temperatures (such as in the use of superconducting magnets). The name quantum mechanics derives from the observation that some physical quantities can change only in discrete amounts (Latin quanta), and not in a continuous (cf. analog) way. For example, the angular momentum of an electron bound to an atom or molecule is quantized.[1] In the context of quantum mechanics, the wave–particle duality of energy and matter and the uncertainty principle provide a unified view of the behavior of photons, electrons, and other atomic-scale objects. The mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics are abstract. A mathematical function known as the wavefunction provides information about the probability...
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...pproaches to interpreting quantum theory have been further explored and developed,[7][8][9] becoming quite popular. MWI is one of many multiverse hypotheses in physics and philosophy. It is currently considered a mainstream interpretation along with the other decoherence interpretations, the Copenhagen interpretation,[10] and deterministic interpretations such as the Bohmian mechanics. Before many-worlds, reality had always been viewed as a single unfolding history. Many-worlds, however, views reality as a many-branched tree, wherein every possible quantum outcome is realised.[11] Many-worlds claims to reconcile the observation of non-deterministic events, such as the random radioactive decay, with the fully deterministic equations of quantum physics. In many-worlds, the subjective appearance of wavefunction collapse is explained by the mechanism of quantum decoherence, which resolves all of the correlation paradoxes of quantum theory, such as the EPR paradox[12][13] and Schrödinger's cat,[1] since every possible outcome of every event defines or exists in its own "history" or "world". In lay terms, the hypothesis states there is a very large–perhaps infinite[14]–number of universes, and everything that could possibly have happened in our past, but did not, has occurred in the past of some other universe or universes. Quantum mechanics Introduction Glossary · History Background Bra–ket notation Classical mechanics Hamiltonian Interference Old quantum theory Fundamental concepts...
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...THEODORE DREWLO May 26, 2015 WERNER HEISENBERG FISSION AND FUSION NEUCLEAR REACTIONS MR. SAIYAN Werner Heisenberg was a German born in 1907 that was a theoretical physicist who made foundational contributions to quantum theory. He is best known for the development of the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics in 1925 and for asserting the uncertainty principle in 1926, although he also made important contributions to nuclear physics, quantum field theory and particle physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 “for the creation of quantum mechanics". From 1924 to 1927, Heisenberg lectured at the University of Göttingen, and conducted research with Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen. It was during this time that the young Heisenberg developed the “matrix mechanics” formulation of quantum mechanics (in collaboration with Max Born and Pascual Jordan). Matrix mechanics was the first complete and correct definition of quantum mechanics, and it extended the Bohr model of atoms by describing how the quantum jumps occur and by interpreting the physical properties of particles as matrices that evolve over time. In 1939, Heisenberg travelled to the United States to visit Samuel Abraham Goudsmit at the University of Michigan, but refused an invitation to emigrate to the United States. Back in Germany, in 1939, shortly after the discovery of nuclear fission, Heisenberg became one of the principal scientists leading research and development in the German...
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...Arturo Alcaraz (Philippines) - Instrumental in a team of scientists, who in 1967 were able to harness steam from a volcano resulting in the production of electricity. Diosdado Banatao (Philippines) - Improved computer performance throughthe development of accelerator chips, helping to make the Internet a reality. Marie Curie (Poland) - Winner of two Nobel Prizes in Chemistry and Physicsfor her studies into Radioactivity and her discoveries of Radium and Polonium. Paul Dirac (England) - An important contributor in the fields of QuantumMechanics and Electro Dynamics, Dirac was co-winner of the Nobel Prize inPhysics (1933). Albert Einstein (Germany) - Arguably needing no introduction, the most famous scientist that lived and a name that has become synonymous in popular culture with the highest intelligence. Enrico Fermi (Italy) - Heavily involved in the development of the world's first nuclear reactor and his work in induced radioactivity saw him awarded with the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics. Vitaly Ginzburg (Russia) - One of three recipients of the 2003 Nobel inPhysics for their pioneering work in the theory of superconductors and superfluids. Christiaan Huygens (Netherlands) - Most well known for his wave theory of light, Huygens is credited with discovering the first of Saturn's moons. Werner Israel (Canada) - In 1990 Israel co-pioneered a study on black hole interiors. Ali Javan (Iran) - Born in Tehran, Ali Javan is listed as one of the top 100 living...
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...mathematician that taught him astronomy and mechanics along with mathematics. This is when Planck first got an interest in physics and learned the principle of conservation of energy. He began the studies in 1874 at the University of Munich and studied theoretical physics. After he graduated, he taught math and physics briefly. Planck completed his habilitation thesis and began lecturing in Munich without getting paid becuase he was waiting to be offered a new postion. He also furthered his work on the field of heat theory. Planck then became a professor at Berlin University and joined the Physical Society. As far as Plancks home life goes, he married and had four children. He was friends with theologian Adolf con Harnack and his home soon because a social center. Famous scientists like Albert Einstein and Otto Hahn all frequently visited. His wife died and he remaired and had his third son. Planck's two sons and two daughters all died. By the end of the 1920s, Bohr, Heisenberg, and Pauli had worked out the interpretation of quantum mechanics, but Planck rejected it. He expected that wave mechanics would render the quantum theory, even though this can not be the case. Further work only cemented quantum theory, even against Einstein's revulsions. He originated quantum theory, which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. Max Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, and is very famous for being the originator of quantum theory. He ended his life at Göttingen...
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...Charles Hnein Ms. Wilson Philosophy 4/14/2013 Metaphysics paper Metaphysics has become the study of the fundamental nature of all reality; what is it, why is it, and how are we can understand it. Finding out if there is reality or not is a subject that has been debated by philosophers and scientists for hundreds of years. The search to understanding the nature of reality is still a mystery. We can know if something is real or not by using our senses, however, it’s much deeper than that. Reality can also be explained through theories of quantum mechanics, physics, and mathematics. Our knowledge comes primarily from our sense and our sensory experiences which make reality possible. We all know what a chair is, so we assume that it is real. What makes a real chair different from a chair that we imagine in our brain? By using our senses we can conclude that the chair is real. We can touch the chair, smell the chair, and see the chair. This brings up the question: what makes reality real? To me, a set of things that we know for sure is real. We know a chair is solid and we’ve experienced it over and over again, thus making it real. But what is real? The chair feels pretty solid, but it’s made out of atoms. Atoms are made up of empty space. Does that mean the chair doesn’t exist? Reality is much weirder than it seems. If atoms are mostly empty space, how come the world around us is solid? We feel like we’re standing still, however, we’re rotating around the sun at 67,000 miles...
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...construct of observation. The properties of certain immutable cosmic laws of the universe, physics and even mentality intertwine to depict a reality of literal imagination. The purpose of this thesis is to prove this very cogitation; the universe is most likely intangible and thus holographic by nature. Since, as human beings, our experience is totally confined to perception and it’s interpretation and due to many anomalous events and devices within the physical world; there lies credence in this theory. Anomalous objects such as black holes and their “informational paradox”, dark matter, atomic structure and even the manner of which the brain works all play a crucial role in supporting this outrageous, yet sensible idea. Keywords: quantum physics, reality, gravity, observation, perception Page 2 Information; the basis of the 21st century and the driving force behind mankind’s monumental bounds forward in technology. We presently live in an age where information can be shared seamlessly and instantly between areas that are very distant. The World Wide Web can serve as a crude hyperbole of the universe as a whole; the power of the internet and its...
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...Physics pre-assessment research task 1. Describe de Broglie’s proposal that any kind of particle has both wave and particle properties De Broglie suggested that if light can behave as both a wave and as a photon, particles could also have dual character. He proposed that all particles had wave properties as well as particle properties. He proposed that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum of the particle, now known as the de Broglie wavelength of a particle and given by, λ=hmv. λ= Wavelength of light (m) h= Planck’s constant 6.626 x 10^-34 (J) m= Mass of the particle (kg) V= Speed of the particle (light) mv= Momentum of particle (kg m/s) 2. Define wave diffraction and interference Diffraction-is the bending of waves as they pass around the corner of a barrier or as they move through obstacles such as a slit. Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape that results from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium. Destructive interference is a type of interference that occurs at any location along the medium where the two interfering waves have a displacement in the opposite direction. For instance, when a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of +1 unit meets a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -1 unit, destructive interference occurs. This is depicted in the diagram below...
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...very low but possible. The other option is that many atoms appeared and that they were the base of the Big bang theory. Uncertainty principle, the basis of the vacuum genesis, in quantum mechanics, is also a theory stating that it is impossible to specify simultaneously the position and momentum of a particle, such as an electron, with precision. Also called the indeterminacy principle, the theory further states that a more accurate determination of one quantity will result in a less precise measurement of the other, and that the product of both uncertainties is never less than Planck's constant, named after the German physicist Max Planck. Of very small magnitude, the uncertainty results from the fundamental nature of the particles being observed. In quantum mechanics, probability calculations therefore replace the exact calculations of classical mechanics. It is also a hypothesis that the universe began as nothingness, from which matter and energy arose by a process analogous to the appearance of virtual particles from a vacuum. Some limited experiments in the production of matter have been confirmed. We can create electron and other matter out of the vacuum state by providing the vacuum with enough energy. According to modern astrophysics and cosmologists, the singularity emerged out of the quantum vacuum. Scientists call this creation scenario “vacuum genesis” and sometimes remark on its similarity to the Genesis myth. Verse two of the book of Genesis reads: “the earth...
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...Quantum Pioneers: Max Planck On April 23, 1858 Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born in Kiel, Germany. At the age of nine his interest in physics and mathematics was developed by his teacher Hermann Muller. When he graduated at the age of seventeen he decided to choose physics over music for his career. He in turn did independent studies primarily on Rudolf Clausius' writings of thermodynamics which inspired him and in July 1879 he received his doctoral degree at the age of twenty-one. After he decided to become a theoretical physicist he started a quest for absolute laws. His favorite absolute law was the law of the conservation of energy which was the first law of thermodynamics that stated that you could take any equal amount of energy and transform it into the same equal amount of energy ideally, meaning no energy was lost. The second law of thermodynamics led him to discover the quantum of action or Planck's constant h. How he came upon his formula for quantum mechanics well be explained as follows. Planck saw that blackbody radiation acted in an absolute sense because it was defined by Kirchhoff as a substance that could absorb almost all radiating energy and emit all that it had absorbed perfectly which is associated with the first law of thermodynamics. By using various experiments and theoretical failures many scientists tried to find the spectral energy distribution to try and draw a diagram of a curve that showed the amount of radiation given off at different frequencies...
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...1. Energy Level: the specific energies an electron in an atom or other system can have 2. Quantum: the amount of energy needed to move an electron from one energy level to another 3. Quantum Mechanical Model: the modern description, primarily mathematical, of the behavior of electrons in atoms 4. Atomic Orbital: a mathematical expression describing the probability of finding an electron at various locations; usually represented by the region of space around the nucleus where there is a high probability of finding an electron 5. Electron Configurations: the arrangement of electrons of an atom in its ground state into various orbitals around the nuclei of atoms 6. Aufbau Principle: the rule that electrons occupy the orbitals of lowest energy first 7. Pauli Exclusion Principle: an atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons, each with opposite spin direction 8. Spin: a quantum mechanical property of electrons that may be thought of as clockwise or counterclockwise 9. Hund’s Rule: electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in a way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible 10. Amplitude: the height of a wave’s crest 11. Wavelength: the distance between adjacent crests of a wave 12. Frequency: the number of wave cycles that pass a given point per unit of time; frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional to each other 13. Hertz: the unit of frequency; equal to one cycle...
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...elements chemically combined in fixed proportions. The relative numbers of any two kinds of atoms in a compound occur in simple ratios. Water, for example, a compound of the elements hydrogen and oxygen, consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the ratio of 2 to 1. 4. A chemical reaction consists of the rearrangement of the atoms present in the reacting substances to give new chemical combinations present in the substances formed by the reaction. Atoms are not created, destroyed, or broken into smaller particles by any chemical reaction. Main Points of the Bohr Model Postulate 1: An electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit under the influence of coulomb attraction between the electron and the nucleus obeying the rules of classical mechanics. Postulate 2: An atom can exist in certain allowed or stationary states, with each state having a definite value for its total energy. When the atom is in one of these states it is stable and does not radiate energy. The total energy of an orbiting electron is quantized such that the electron’s angular momentum L has a set of discrete values given by equation (1) m= mass of electron...
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