...CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 INTRODUCTION Frontline workers are those that actually use the safety devices and could be staff nurses or charge nurses, for example, not management staff that do not use these devices. Everyone starts out with a job at or near the “bottom rung” of the career ladder; initial positions are often low paying, low level of decision-making required, repetitive and/or part-time positions. These first jobs are often “front line” jobs and require the following skills and abilities in order to do the job well: This chapter involves review of previous studies and researches carried out which were found to be related to this presently. Detailed review of literature was carried out to cover the following study areas as shown: - Organizations - Management - Motivation (Reward) and its theories - Relevance of motivation (reward) on productivity. 2.2 ORGANIZATION Organization can be defined as two or more people who work together in structured way achieve a specific goal or goals. Organization can be defined form diverse perspectives. According to Scott (1981) these are there perspective for defining organization these are: 1. Organization as rational systems. 2. Organization as natural systems. 3. Organizations an open system. Organization as Rational Systems: The definition of Organizations as a rational system emphasizes two major characteristic of Organizations. a. Specification of goals b. Formalization of structure. ...
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...1. Which motivational theory is influenced by personality? Discuss the motivational theory with the personality elements that are involved in the theory. What would be the likely effect of personality if you were to implement this method of motivation? Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y is influenced by personality. McGregor concluded that mangers’ views of the nature of human beings are based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that they tend to mould their behavior towards employees according to these assumptions. Under Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers are: 1. Employees inherently dislike work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. 2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. 3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible. 4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition. Under Theory Y, the four assumptions held by managers are: 1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. 2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. 3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. 4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and isn’t necessarily the sole province of those in management positions. Theory X assumes that...
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...producing them. Because of this, consumers have to make decisions on what products to buy. In order to buy products, consumers need to be motivated hence; make the decision of buying the item. Consumer behavior is a subject of importance in business. Attitude, motivation, perception are some of the aspects that make consumers buy products. According to psychologists and sociologists, the utmost feature that explains why consumers buy products is motivation, but the question of what motivates them to buy products has been a confusing factor. This is because people have different traits and beliefs. Motivation refers to as the driving force that makes individuals act the way they act. It is identified as the inner drive that reflects goal oriented arousal. It includes both positive and negative factors that direct a person’s behavior (Burrow and Bosiljevac, 160). Background information on motivation Motivation is a study that has been researched in detail because it entails human behaviors on certain issues. Motivation is a drive that is within a person, and it is responsible for making a person carry out an action. Dr. Abraham Maslow is a known psychologist who formulated the theory of motivation in humans basing them on a hierarchy of human needs. The theory is known as Maslow’s theory of need hierarchy. The hierarchy of human needs identifies five basic levels of human needs. The hierarchy is...
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...Counseling Psychology Research Paper: The cognitions, presented in the speech of this woman reflect her hear that her family is falling apart and this means a catastrophe for her. Two core cognitions, presented in her speech are: “My family is falling apart” and “I will never get over it if I can’t pull this family together”. There are phrases, which are cognitive distortions in client’s speech. They are: “My daughter never comes to visit me”, “I am totally on my own”, “I will never get over it”, I have failed in all aspects”, “Everyone at the streets…”. These phrases have many sings of distortions, such as magnifications (I am totally on my own, I will never get over, Everybody at the streets seems to know that I have failed as a mother, my daughter never comes to me); generalizations (never, totally); all or nothing thinking (I will never get over it if…); emotional reasoning (I feel so out of place, I’m beginning to think they are avoiding me, Don’t you think that a mother deserves more than this?); labeling and jumping to conclusions (my daughter probably think I don’t care); and making an accent on negative. These cognitive distortions are not based on real facts. They exaggerate negative sides of the problem and speak nothing about the good points. At the same time it is necessary to remember that these distortions make the part of core cognitions of the client and make a part of her picture of the world. She does not realize negative effect of these cognitions and...
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...in America and around the world, and has devastating consequences for the entire social fabric. In this article, we focus on organizational corruption, described as the abuse of authority for personal benefit, and draw on Weber’s three ideal-types of legitimate authority to develop a theoretical model to better understand the antecedents of different types of organizational corruption. Specifically, we examine the types of business misconduct that organizational leaders are likely to engage in, contingent on their legitimate authority, motives, and justifications. We conclude by suggesting managerial implications of our theoretical model and propose directions for future research. KEY WORDS: authority, bureaucracy, corruption, opportunity, motivation, justification, types of organizational corruption, weber, white-collar crime The issue of corruption has been gaining increasing importance in today’s world. The World Bank has singled out corruption as the largest obstacle to economic and social development, and in our search of the word ‘corruption’ in article headings in The Wall Street Journal in 2004, the word appeared 496 times. Much evidence also suggests that corruption is as ancient as disloyalty and greed, particularly in the context of politics. For example, in a fourth century B.C. manifesto entitled Arthashastra (‘Science of Polity’), Indian political philosopher, Kautilya discusses the principles of governing the state and includes the problem of Manuscript BUSI393R1...
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...The Categorical Imperative Analyzing Immanuel Kant’s Grounding for A Metaphysics of Morals Anders Bordum WP 4/2002 January 2002 MPP Working Paper No. 4/2002 © January 2002 ISBN: 87-91181-06-2 ISSN: 1396-2817 Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy Copenhagen Business School Blaagaardsgade 23B DK-2200 Copenhagen N Denmark Phone: +45 38 15 36 30 Fax: +45 38 15 36 35 E-mail: as.lpf@cbs.dk www.cbs.dk/departments/mpp 2 The Categorical Imperative Analyzing Immanuel Kant's Grounding for a Metaphysics of Morals By Anders Bordum Keywords: Categorical imperative, discourse ethics, duty, ethics, monologic, dialogic, Immanuel Kant, Jürgen Habermas, self-legislation, self-reference. 3 Abstract In this article I first argue that Immanuel Kant’s conception of the categorical imperative is important to his philosophy. I systematically, though indirectly, interconnect the cognitive and moral aspects of his thinking. Second, I present an interpretation of the Kantian ethics, taking as my point of departure, the concept of the categorical imperative. Finally, I show how the categorical imperative is given a dialogical interpretation by Jürgen Habermas in his approach, usually referred to as discourse ethics. I argue that the dialogical approach taken by discourse ethics is more justifiable and therefore more usefuli. I The Synthesis of Rationalism and Empiricism The philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is in the main inspired...
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...beliefs towards them I have based my arguments on Goldsteins work as it a far more complete argument and analysis of internal and external reasons. Williams has defined two sets of reasoning which are in the world and that we can experience, one is an internal reason and the other being an external reason. He describes an internal reason as something that one has in light of one's own "subjective motivational set"- one's own commitments, desires (or wants) and goals Opposite to this is an external reason, which is one that which occurs independently of one's subjective motivational set. To explain the difference between these two, a more in depth look at the rationale must be done I will use some examples as well to clarify, the distinction between them depends on what kind of rational authority (normativity, validity) the reasons claim. If you possess an internal reason for performing some action, then it applies to you, or is...
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...1) Introduction 2) Learning and Memory Theory 3) Motivation Theory 4) Conclusion 5) References 1) Introduction The communication message we have chosen is an advert promoting a facial product known as the ‘PerfectaWash’ which dispenses the perfect amount of face wash. We have chosen this message as it utilises effective methods for consumers to not only remember the advert, but also to feel motivated to make a purchase. 2) Learning and Memory Theory Learning’s defined as ‘a relatively permanent change in behaviour which is linked to experience’. The term “encompasses the total range of learning, from simple almost reflexive responses to the learning of abstract concepts and complex problem solving (L. Schiffman & H. Hansen, 2008. A)”. Within learning theory, there are two key approaches; behavioural learning which focuses on conditioned learning and cognitive learning which assumes a conscious process occurs through learning. The advert begins with a woman walking up to a mirror, examining a spot on her face whilst the narrator states ‘when it comes to clear skin, the right amount of the right face wash is key’. The product is then introduced as a solution to the woman’s problem whilst the narrator explains its features to viewers and its unique selling point; it dispenses the adequate amount of face wash to cleanse, but not too much to dry out skin. This is vital to the adverts message as the behavioural theory operant conditioning ‘associates responses with their...
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...would discuss any technical issues, questions, and upcoming due dates for section assignments and review. C1a. Achievement of Goals Our team did exceptionally well getting the sections we chose turned into the compiler on time. We were consistently ahead of schedule throughout the project despite several setbacks for many of the group members. Several group members had issues receiving email, opening files for review, and receiving phone messages. I believe that this allowed us to meet goal 2 in relation to support. All team members have been extremely helpful and supportive to each other. When someone ran into a problem everyone jumped in to help resolve the issue. On top of that we also encouraged each other and gave kudos to keep motivation high. The second goal was achieved. We met every Wednesday at 8 pm for conference and if a group member was not available, they notified the group of this and submitted any questions they had through email for the group to respond...
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...Technical-rational approaches to organisation (see Brooks, 2006 or 2009) are of little use to managers. The aim of this essay is to examine and discuss the different approaches to organisation such as Technical-rational approach. Evaluate the idealists and theories behind the approaches and to compare how effective they are in management and in today’s business environment. Managers use different perspectives in organisational management to maximise their workforce, to achieve business goals. Each approach is developed by a series of academics and researchers as a result of studying and understanding organisations. The technical-rational approach is a conception of the business enterprise as a mechanism for coordinating economic inputs and activities, and of the manager as a morally neutral technician engaged in a world of purely rational problem solving in the pursuit of efficiency (John et al, 2006). Principles were designed to be universally applicable and based on rational, ordered technical arrangements (Brooks, 2009). Organisations were viewed as machines and humans ‘as mere cogs within them’ (Graley, 2012). Bureaucracy, Classical school (Of Thought) and scientific management are divisions of a technical approach. Bureaucracy was founded by Max Weber a German philosopher who reported that (Brooks, 2009) people in organisations have their own well defined tasks and responsibilities. Organisations contain hierarchical structures with each developing their own rules...
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...Consumer Motivation: Consumer motivation is an internal state that drives people to identify and buy products or services that fulfill conscious and unconscious needs or desires. The fulfillment of those needs can then motivate them to make a repeat purchase or to find different goods and services to better fulfill those needs. Motivations that are tacit are those that consumers cannot tell you about directly. For example, let's say that the consumer tells you that one improvement would be to enhance ease of use of your product. You may be able to improve the direct experience of using your product, but what if the real motivation behind that comment was deeper than that? What if the consumer lacks confidence in performing the overall task that your product is a tool in accomplishing? If that is the case, then improving the experience of using your product may not help them to achieve their overall goal. You may need to develop an entirely new product that addresses their needs more holistically. Or you may be able to market your product more broadly as a tool within a larger process that you can then own. When you are thinking about innovating in your company, it is useful to make a clear distinction about whether you want to improve your current products or develop something new and different. This will dictate the type of consumer research you will need to guide development effort. Product improvements can be guided by explicit consumer motivations, and they can...
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...Humanistic and Existential Personality Theories offered perspectives that have proved to be valuable to those researching and exploring how one’s personality develops and expands throughout life. Whenever giving praise or saying thanks can make a person believe he or she is wanted and know there is a reason to live. The humanistic theories focus on the individual and no one else. The humanistic theory is the psychological perception of good in every human. This theory follows steps for the individual to achieve self-actualization. For one to achieve this, he or she must fulfill his or her needs of the lower level. A strong believer of free will, the humanistic perspective has always argued that despite environmental and biological factors, people have the ability to act and change in ways that they themselves govern. Roger's also believed it was important for people to love themselves and accept themselves, because these were steps to solving problems. Existentialism is more of individual rather than social. They, Existentialist need to justify their existence. For them, they’re having their journey in life to know their purpose based on their own philosophy, according to EDU310 Foundations of Learning. A post second world war movement, mainly centered around artistic and creative intellectuals. A difficult concept to define if indeed concept is the correct term. Existentialism seems to come from the human nature and how individuals deal with there own existence...
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...performance of advertising process which represents the idea that the message provided could be analysed and created during the accessing process (WANG, 2006,p355).One of the effect provided is message involvement(ibid). From this prospective, the desire to endeavour to be satisfied with the products or service would be stimulated by a consumer's motivation (Solomon et al., n.d.) Generally, Media possess different qualities that influence consumers’ motivation to pay attention to what they tell to the consumers. With the development of virtual channel, the Internet offers an easy access for consumers to receive the message in the advertisement. In this case, by addressing the rational message educating people in the advertisements to casual users, it leads to high usage of BCH. BCH has relied on subtle messages to stimulate the usage of the system by advertisement. Transport for London has broadcast the commercials on TV and YouTube to capitalize on message involvement strategy to educate the citizens. Basically, Transport for London used rational approach in advertisement at first (2010) to offer general and simple information that how to use BCH to citizens. Furthermore, emotional approach is also used in the other advertisement. For instance, the London Story - TFL Barclays Cycle Hire provides the emotional approach in message involvement. A Barclays Cycle Hire distributor tells the story of his job, as well as the enjoyable moment to work for Barclays Cycle Hire scheme. The commercials...
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...the Utah Opera Organization might use the Adams Equity Theory to support the merger. The Adams Equity Theory falls under the process theories of motivation. These theories focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and congnitions influence employee motivation. This theory focuses on the balance or imbalance that exists between an employee's inputs and outputs. Equity exists for employees when they feel their ratio of perceived outcomes to inputs is equal to the ration of outcomes to inputs for a similar coworker. The employee wishes to see employer returns or outputs based on what they input to their job performance. Interactional justice is the last component to this theory and is the extent to which people feel fairly treated when procedures are implemented. This is achieved by managers communicating truthfully and by treating people with courtesy and respect. By recognizing that people have varying sensitivities to perceived equity and inequity and by noting that inequity can be reduced in various ways Bailey can help support the merger. He needs to highlight the mergers ability to showcase a climate for justice therefore he will be able to influence the employee's organizational commitment and job satisfaction. (2)Scott Parker might use Vrooms Expectancy Theory, which also falls under the category of process theories of motivation to convince Mrs. Abravanel to support the merger. This theory states that the motivation of the behavior selection is determined...
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...WRITER(S) FOR SOLVING THE ASSIGNMENT(S) WILL DEBAR THE STUDENT FROM AWARD OF DEGREE/CERTIFICATE, IF FOUND AT ANY STAGE. 2. SUBMITTING ASSIGNMENTS BORROWED OR STOLEN FROM OTHER(S) AS ONE’S OWN WILL BE PENALIZED AS DEFINED IN “AIOU PLAGIARISM POLICY”. Course: Management Theory and Practice (8506) Semester: Autumn, 2011 Level: MBA/M.Com Total Marks: 100 Pass Marks: 50 ASSIGNMENT No. 1 (Units: 1–5) Note: Attempt and questions. Q. 1 a) Define manager and differentiate between general manager and functional manager. Also discuss the different levels of managers with suitable examples. (12) b) Discuss the contribution of Henry Fayol in the field of Management. (08) Q. 2 What is meant by rational decision making? Explain the steps of rational decision making with a suitable example. (20) Q. 3 a) Define Management By Objective (MBO). Differentiate between Strategic planning, Tactical planning and Operational planning. (2+10) b) Explain the following planning tools: i) Forecasting ii) Benchmarking iii) Scheduling iv) Budgeting (2+2+2+2) Q. 4 a) Define the term “Delegation”. Also describe the seven steps to effective delegation. (3+7) b) Explain the following concepts: i) Centralization ii) Decentralization iii) Authority iv) Span of control v) Span of Control (2+2+2+2+2) Q. 5 a) Define Leadership. Differentiate between Leader and Manager. (2+8) b) Discuss the following approaches to leadership...
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