...Analyse the reasons for the 1947 partition of the South Asian sub-continent into India and Pakistan. The partition of the South Asian sub-continent into India and Pakistan was one of the most crucial events in both countries histories. There was exceeding tensions in India between the two main political parties; the Indian National Congress, with predominantly Hindu based support and members and the Muslim League formed later as protest against the minority Muslim population and their overlooked rights. Violence and bloodshed between Hindu and Muslim population had become increasingly severe and forced the decision surrounding partition to be made quickly before it escalated any further. Furthermore, the British intention to leave India was a ticking clock forcing the two parties to come to a decision quickly rather than be granted independence only to be left in a civil war. However, the social and economic barriers between Muslims and Hindus also furthered the support for partition Tensions between the Muslim League and Congress led to the League’s increasing insecurity of being disadvantaged by having a single Indian nation dominated by Hindus and that their interests would not be accounted for. The Muslim League felt increasingly isolated which led them to push harder for the partition of India. Much of this sense of isolation was set about by the actions of Congress. For instance, in the 1937 elections the Congress won majorities in seven of eleven provinces in which...
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...regarding partition of 1947: A holistic approach incorporating an analysis of the State account to understand the political agendas, and deconstruction of Manto’s writings to comprehend the biases present in the literary arena. The history of the partition of India has been viewed, contemplated and constructed with a variety of perspectives, each differing according to a large number of variables. These variables include the time in which the perspective was formed and documented, the side of the border at which the writer resided, the views of the resultant states and how they portrayed these views, the personal experiences of the literary writers, and so on and so forth. With a vast number of variables, it becomes an impossible task to present an unbiased and accurate depiction of the historical events that occurred during this period. The sheer scale of the event was such that it encompassed people residing in an assortment of areas, with varying lifestyles, ethnicities, religions and socio-economic statuses. The exodus of people from both sides of the border was, and remains, incomprehensible. The breakout of violence in previously peaceful communities, the horrifying tales of tragedies of all parties involved and the politicized character of the event were of such multifaceted natures that a uniform historical account can not be formed. With this consideration, the literary writings provide a different insight, from a different perspective so as to study the partition with a...
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...The new labour government voted into power in Britain in May 1945 was determined to press ahead with political reform in India and there was optimism among nationalist leaders that progress towards independence would quicken. Viceroy Wavell was worried that Labour was too eager to hand over power to congress, which would further raise the anxieties of the Muslim League. In January 1946, the British MPs made a small visit to India without announcing there conclusions, but in private some stated that Pakistan must be conceded to avoid Muslim unrest. Viceroy Wavell was keenly interested in making practical preparations for the eventual unpleasantness of announcing the actual boundary lines. This shows that some of the British leaders did foreshadow the horrific consequences of the partition but they went ahead with it anyway, perhaps believing that it was a better solution than keeping India united. This contrasts with popular writings which claimed that 'the country’s division was a colossal tragedy, a man-made catastrophe brought about by hot-headed and cynical politicians who failed to grasp the implications of division along religious line's '[14]. The writings criticise the politicians for not being perceptive and aware of what the outcome of the partition could be. It places the partition solely in the hands of the clueless politicians, so the partition was not inevitable and the leaders should be blamed for making such a disastrous decision and not thinking about the consequences...
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...incomplete. It currently lacks details, examples, and proper in-text referencing. Pakistan: A Nation for Muslims… or Not? by Asma Zarouni Introduction The popular view regarding the Pakistan-India conflict – that carries on to date – is that it was a religious conflict. The Pakistani version proclaims that Muslims in India had been subject to persecution and bias, and the claim to an independent nation lied in this persecution. This is a story that masses of Pakistanis have believed and the essential reason that masses of Pakistanis tend to rigorously indulge in an anti-India sentiment. Although, this version of the conflict might serve well to inspire patriotism amongst Pakistanis, this version does inspire a lot of questions. If Pakistan was a nation made for Muslims, why has its constitution since its independence been based upon secularism? Why is it that an exceeding population of Muslims chose not to migrate to Pakistan during the conflict? Why is it that a nation created on the notion of common religion remains divided through various other issues? Amidst such blaring questions, the only answer that seems likely is that Pakistan was a nation that was not made for Muslims. In other words, it might be said that in 1947, the call for Partition of Greater India into Pakistan and India was not one that came from the majority of people but only a select few elitist. This paper aims to argue the aforementioned proposition with historical evidence and logical analysis. Muslim...
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...Question: 2. What are the key reasons for the continued hostility in Indo-Pak relations? What steps in your opinion can the two countries take to develop and sustain cordial relations in the twenty-first century? Introduction “Indo-Pak rivalry is the uncompromising struggle of two ways of life, two concepts of political organisation, two conflicting ideological foundations, two scales of values, and two spiritual attitudes that find themselves locked in deadly conflict, a conflict in which Kashmir has become both symbol and battleground, making the Indo-Pak rivalry an enduring one (Ashok 2012, 1)”. This essay will argue that the key reasons underlying the continued hostility in Indo-Pak relations are due to an antithetical idea of state identity. This essay will first outline the origins of the Indo-Pak conflict in order to give historical context to the conflict. It will be argued that the predisposing conditions for the conflict are a fundamental ideological difference in state construction which is closely linked to the second condition being the irredentist/anti-irredentist relationship between India and Pakistan. This essay will firstly consider the differences in state identity by outlining the fundamentals of Indo-Pak state construction with particular focus on why India and Pakistan feel their ideological existence is threatened by the other. Subsequently, the irredentist/anti-irredentist relationship will be outlined and considered in the context of the enduring...
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...December 1898, when he arrived in Calcutta. Curzon differed from previous viceroys, as he was not reluctant to play the position of viceroy in India, but was actually eager to partake in this opportunity. Many factors contributed to his eager attitude to becoming viceroy, like the fact that he had always been interested in Indian history and his fascination of travelling also played a part in his desire to become viceroy, so much so that he described it as ‘ the greatest of his various ambitions’. Curzon had two terms as viceroy that were overall quite successful, however due to controversial and failed policies that he embarked upon in his second term , his reputation and legacy was severely damaged. He also contributed to the corrupt reputation of the British rule and as a result of Curzon’s failed policies, many campaigns were triggered and after 50 years, it would lead to the independence of India. Curzon’s desire to become viceroy and his well-travelled nature meant that he was able to gain a better insight into the culture and lives of the Indians. As a result of the Indian mutiny, queen victoria made it clear in the royal proclamation that the British viceroys were to serve the interests and care for her Indian subjects, as well as keeping out external threats and remaining in control of uprising within India. For this reasons it may be argued by some historians, that Curzon was a success because of his clarity when it came to problem solving and his willingness to break...
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...leader in India during the Indian Revolution, a period of colonization over India by Great Britain. From 1911 to 1947 the British exploited Indians for their natural resources and throughout all those years many other leaders encouraged non-violent protesting and defiance. For the most part everyone maintained peaceful and nonviolent but there were definitely bumps in the road. All hard work put in for the 36 years somewhat paid off in the end. The Indian Revolution was effective because they got rid of foreign influence and grew to become...
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...Two voices Kashmir can join Hands with Pakistan or It can choose To be independent Kashmir is one of the most disputed issue of the world since the partition of the Subcontinent. At the time of partition, Kashmir was under the control of Hindu Dogra and for this reason this area was considered as a princely state. According to partition act of law that all princely states would be given full opportunity to join any country or be independent. So it makes sense that Kashmir can still join hands with Pakistan or choose to be independent. Kashmir can join Pakistan, the reason why Kashmir should is that this would be beneficial for both the countries. First the advantages Kashmir would get are industrial revolution, freedom to follow any religion, and defense system. Kashmir has no industries at all so it would be beneficial to the people of Kashmir to get jobs and alleviate their poverty. Pakistan is an Islamic state but it has freedom to follow any culture, religion, or any ideology so it would enable Kashmiri people to practice any religion. Kashmir has no defense system so joining hands with Pakistan (Seventh Atomic Nation) can provide it defense. The advantages Pakistan would get when Kashmir is in its premises are rivers, Siachen Glacier, tourism, and agriculture. Rivers are the most important of all, Pakistan needs water to fertile its lands to escalate its agriculture and this would surge the building of dams. Siachen Glacial is Pakistani military based area but...
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...between these two countries. So what has given rise to this bad blood? The reasons are myriad and complex and I believe that one needs to look at both the Pakistani and Indian narrative to understand . The seeds of this antagonism were the mindsets of the Congress Party and Muslim League. The congress party always believed that there primary struggle was to get the British out of subcontinent. They views Pakistan as an illegitimate child that could be throttled soon after its birth and made to join United India again. Sardar Patel who was to become the deputy Prime Minister of India expressed publicly that he hoped Pakistan would come join India and Nehru only agreed to the Partition because he felt that Pakistan could not last as an independent state. The Muslims on the hand were the descendants of an ancient conquering class who believed that they would prevail over the Hindus whenever the situation came to armed conflict. Given these mindsets it was preposterous even to assume that the two newly formed stated could follow a policy of reconciliation and respect. Indian attempts to strangle the new born Muslim state soon confirmed the fears of the Pakistani leadership. The area that constitutes pre partition Pakistan was industrially under developed with the consequence that even though Pakistan had plenty of natural resources, the factories to process these resources were all located in India. India stopped all trade with Pakistan to...
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...recognised, this is in fact only the most recent chapter in a longer history. This paper offers an understanding of the part played by the Indian subcontinent role and its people in the making of the modern world. From the decline of the great empire of the Mughals and the rise of British hegemony, to the rise of nationalism, the coming of independence and partition, the consolidation of new nation states despite regional wars and conflicts, and the emergence of India as the largest democracy in the world, this paper is a comprehensive and analytical survey of the subcontinent's modern history. The dynamic and complex relationships between changing forms of political power and religious identities, economic transformations, and social and cultural change are studied in the period from 1757 to 2007. In normal circumstances students will be given 6 supervisions in groups of 1 or 2. Key themes and brief overview: The paper begins by examining the rise of British power in the context of economic developments indigenous to southern Asia; it analyses the role played by Indian polities and social groups in the expansion of the East India Company's activities. It tracks the emergence of modern intelligentsias and their definitions of what constituted proper religious, public and domestic behaviour. The paper places these changes in the context of the concurrent decline of Indian handicrafts and the impact of British revenue arrangements on rural society, and explores India's place in the...
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...law. In this modern times, the same laws have been retrofitted to suit present conditions and have been codified in the form of several acts of which the important ones are - Hindu Marriage Act 1955, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act 1956, Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act 1956, and Hindu Succession Act 1956. Application of Hindu Law A precise definition of Hinduism does not exist. Hence, it is impossible to define a fixed criteria for determining who is a Hindu. So a negative definition of 'who is not a Hindu' is used. Further, in this land, several religions have been born and they they follow the same customs and practices. So it cannot be said that Hindu Law can be applied only to people who are Hindus by religion. Due to these reasons, in general, the following people are considered to be Hindu with respect to application of Hindu Law. 1. Hindu by Religion - A person who is Hindu, Jain, Bauddha, or Sikh by religion. In Shastri v Muldas SC AIR 1961, SC has held that various sub sects of Hindus such as Swaminarayan, Satsangis, Arya Samajis are also Hindus by religion because they follow the same basic concept of Hindu Philosophy. Converts and Reconverts are also Hindus. SC, in the case of Peerumal v Poonuswami AIR 1971, has held that a person can be a Hindu if after expressing the intention of becoming a Hindu, follows the customs of the caste, tribe, or community, and the community accepts him. In Mohandas vs Dewaswan board AIR 1975, Kerala HC has held that a mere...
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...Born: 02/10/1869 Died: 30/01/1948 Birthplace: Porbandar, Gujarat, India Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, more commonly known as ‘Mahatma’ (meaning ‘Great Soul’) was born in Porbandar, Gujarat, in North West India, on 2nd October 1869, into a Hindu Modh family. His father was the Chief Minister of Porbandar, and his mother’s religious devotion meant that his upbringing was infused with the Jain pacifist teachings of mutual tolerance, non-injury to living beings and vegetarianism. Born into a privileged caste, Gandhi was fortunate to receive a comprehensive education, but proved a mediocre student. In May 1883, aged 13, Gandhi was married to Kasturba Makhanji, a girl also aged 13, through the arrangement of their respective parents, as is customary in India. Following his entry into Samaldas College, at the University of Bombay, she bore him the first of four sons, in 1888. Gandhi was unhappy at college, following his parent’s wishes to take the bar, and when he was offered the opportunity of furthering his studies overseas, at University College London, aged 18, he accepted with alacrity, starting there in September 1888. Determined to adhere to Hindu principles, which included vegetarianism as well as alcohol and sexual abstinence, he found London restrictive initially, but once he had found kindred spirits he flourished, and pursued the philosophical study of religions, including Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism and others, having professed no particular interest...
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...became its first Prime Minister. Pakistan became a dominion within the British Commonwealth of Nations. The boundaries of Pakistan emerged on the map of the world in 1947. This was accomplished on the basis of the Two-Nation Theory. This theory held that there were two nations, Hindus and Muslims living in the territory of the Sub-continent. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was the first exponent of the Two-Nation Theory in the modern era. He believed that India was a continent and not a country, and that among the vast population of different races and different creeds, Hindus and Muslims were the two major nations on the basis of nationality, religion, way-of-life, customs, traditions, culture and historical conditions. The politicization of the Muslim community came about as a consequence of three developments: Various efforts towards Islamic reform and revival during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The impact of Hindu-based nationalism. The democratization of the government of British India. While the antecedents of Muslim nationalism in India go back to the early Islamic conquests of the Sub-continent, organizationally it stems from the demands presented...
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...Analysing Religion and Criminality. Mani Kanth Kaleru. Section-B Religion is basically defined as a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and sometimes, to moral values. Religions are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the human nature. The development of religion has taken different forms in different cultures. Some religions place an emphasis on belief, while others emphasize practice. Some religions focus on the subjective experience of the religious individual, while others consider the activities of the religious community to be most important. Coming to Islam, is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Quran, a text considered by its followers to be the word of God and by the teachings and normative example of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim. With over 1.5 billion followers or over 22% of earth's population, Islam is the second-largest and one of the fastest-growing religions in the world. Coming to crime, a normative definition views crime as weird behaviour...
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...Indian-Pakistani confrontation from the partition of the British Indian Empire to these days. Over the Kashmir issue DATE: 06/JAN/2013 Introduction to the Indian-Pakistan conflict: Since 1946 the British began dynamically to negotiate a shift of authority, but this did not prove to be an easy affair, for as independence was established in August 1947 it was not to a single unitary state, but to two- India and Pakistan. The detachment of India occurred as Congress and the Muslim League had principally incompatible thoughts about how to represent a single successor state to British rule. Put plainly, The Muslim League preferred a weak political centre and the devolution of power to groups of provinces, which would permit the Muslim-majority areas a superior deal of self-government, while Congress sought the construction of a sturdy centralized state in order to become conscious on its social and economic goal. With neither side enthusiastic to compromise at the country on the brink of chaos. The easiest resolution was partition. The outcome was that the Muslim-majority areas of Baluchistan, Sind, the North-West Frontier, the western half of the Punjab and Eastern half of Bengal were amalgamated into the state of Pakistan underneath the premiership of the leader of the Muslim League. Muhammad Ali Jinnah. In the meantime India gained its independence under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the leader of the Congress party. In addition, it hastily added to its territorial...
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