...Critical Analysis of Meditations on the First Philosophy Gage Berryman Philosophy 101 April 17, 2014 Rene Descartes writes his Meditations on First Philosophy according to God and the soul. Both of these factors are addressed in all six of his meditations. Each meditation has its own theme and main objective that contribute to its explanation. Although Descartes writing was challenging to understand, I have found sources to help clarify and back up the ideas that have been stated. I will analysis the ideas Descartes has mentioned in the first three of his meditations. The first meditation: “Of the things which may be brought within the sphere of the doubtful” In this section, Descartes states that he does not trust his senses because they are deceptive. He questions the sciences and the deceptiveness that they have within them. The only science that he believes to be truthful is arithmetic and geometry. They are based on simple objects. The other sciences are untrustworthy because they come from composite ideas. Descartes states “there is nothing in all that I formerly believed to be true” God also plays a large part in the discussion of this meditation. He believes that God is not deceptive and only speaks the truth. The journal Substance and Action in Descartes and Newton states “from Descartes's point of view, we cannot think of God as extended because God lacks geometric properties, unlike ordinary material bodies, which have shapes, and whose parts have various...
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...Is life an Illusion? David Coulter Liberty University Is Life an Illusion? Each of the readings discusses aspects of man being deceived by his senses. In The Matrix, almost every human is plugged into a giant computer and lives out an illusion provided by the computer to the brain (Wachowski, 1999). In The Allegory of the Cave, a hypothetical situation where men are only allowed to see shadows of reality is discussed by Socrates and Glaucon (Plato, n.d.). Finally, in Meditation I of The Things of Which We May Doubt, René Descartes attempts to eliminate all beliefs that might be based on something uncertain. He proposes that a demon may be providing an illusion and his senses may not reflect reality (Descartes, 1641). With all of this investigation around human senses being deceived, is it possible for people to trust their senses? The Matrix and The Allegory of the Cave both deal with how men react to reality when illusion and reality are recognized for what they are. However, they each deal with this recognition in different ways. In The Matrix, reality is far less pleasant than the illusion. Some prefer the truth rather than to be deceived, and one in particular prefers the illusion claiming “ignorance is bliss” (Wachowski, 1999). In The Allegory of the Cave, the hypothetical subjects when confronted with reality find it to be less real than the deceptive shadows that they have always thought was reality. Over time, they learn that the deceptive shadows were and...
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...psychology is "a science about a soul." Until the second half of the nineteenth century, psychology was a part of philosophy and was used for explanation of certain philosophical hypothesis. In the past, there were philosophers who had a major influence on the later development of psychology such as Rene Descartes (1596-1650), Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) and John Locke (1632-1704). Rene Descartes is the most important representative of rationalism. His philosophical thoughts had a big influence on certain psychological branches, especially Gestalt psychology. According to Landrum, "Descartes suggested that whereas the mind is the source of ideas and thoughts (that he correctly located in the brain), the body is a machine-like structure to be studied and understood." Descartes acknowledged two substances: the soul and the body. On the other hand, Spinoza was an empiricist, and he advocated the standpoint that there is only one substance that is at the same time spiritual and material. This philosopher researched conflicts in human behavior. Therefore, he is considered as the antecedent of psychology of dynamics (a term later developed and established by Freud). Even though Spinoza and Descartes placed milestones for...
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...What is Free will? Free will is whether we as a human can mange to make our own decisions without being controlled, or if we are controlled and the decisions that happen are meant to happen. Is it our fate? Or is it possible that everyone makes their own future and pays for their own consequences? Whether it be Rene Descartes beliefs or John Locke ideas of the meaning of free will. These are many philosophers that have gone into detail describing free will and determinism but it is varied due to the fact we all think differently. Free will is described as the human will be regarded as free from restraints, compulsions, freedom of decision or choice. The dictionary describes determinism as the doctrine that everything is entirely determined...
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...Describe and assess dualism as a theory of the relation of mind and body. Human beings are material objects. However, unlike other material objects (e.g. non-living things) humans have the ability to form judgements and reason their existence. Meaning to say that, human beings have 'minds'. In general, humans are characterised as having both a mind and body. By definition, mind is referred to the mental processes, thought and consciousness whereas body is referred to the physical aspects of the brain-neurons and how the brain is structured. This is known as dualism. In the philosophy of mind, dualism is the theory that the mental (mind) and the physical (body) are both real or exist, but both of them are different kinds of thing. The theory of mind-body dualism is presented by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who holds that both mind and body are substances, in which the body is a material substance as it is extended in space whereas the mind is an unextended in space, and so called spiritual substance. According to Descartes, he believed that mind and body actually can interact through the pineal gland in the brain. In Descartes’s first principle of philosophy, “I think, therefore I am”, makes mind more certain than matter. It also showed that the mind which is a thinking thing can exist apart from its extended body. Hence, Descartes said that the mind is a substance that is different from the body (a substance whose essence is thought). This became known as “Substance Dualism”...
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...Animals and Human culture Before the 19th century, the West viewed nonhumans as being outside the legal and moral community (Francione, 2008). In this respect, how they were treated or used raised no legal or moral concern. The Western community could use nonhumans for whatever purpose they felt like, inflicting suffering and pain to whatever magnitude they wanted and no obligation owed to them would be deemed as being violated. In other words nonhumans were not distinguished from other inanimate objects and as such had no legal or moral obligations (Nikki, 2012). There are those acts that from the surface appeared as obligation towards other animals, for instance an obligation not to injure a donkey or horse that belonged to the neighbor, in actual sense we owed the obligation not to the animal but to our neighbors. Issues of moral became a concern only to the limited scope when humans who were cruel or known to subject the nonhumans to suffering were generally thought to be capable of maltreating humans. Just like the above, the obligation related to the animal in question was actually owed to the other human beings. Nonhumans were viewed as having little moral significance. This essay will focus on Jane Goodall assertion that ‘Who are we to say that the suffering of human being is more terrible than the suffering of nonhuman being, or that it matters more’? (1990). Some scholars believe that human being suffer more as compared to the nonhuman beings and they...
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...Putting the idea of innatism into question, John Locke (1632 – 1704) is a philosopher and a scientist, contributed much to the realms of philosophy, law and politics. He strongly believed in the innate goodness of humans and the right to freedom and property of the people. In this paper we will be looking at both Empiricism and Innate ideas and whether Locke’s ‘children and idiots’ argument against innate ideas is sound. Locke believes that people are born with blank slates, and that knowledge is acquired throughout one’s life through experiences and sensations. In the 18th century, Locke came up with the term empiricism. Empiricism is the view that most knowledge is derived from experience. Which means both senses and inner thought....
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...aspects of it can be grasped through mathematical and logical principles, and not simply through sensory experience. The most famous rationalists were Descartes and Spinoza. Empiricism is a philosophical perspective to counter the rationalism of the 17th century. Empiricists were philosophers who felt that everything in our mind comes from our experience through the senses. They heavily critiqued the rationalists. Locke, Berkeley and Hume were the most famous empiricists. Throughout this age, the Philosophers evolved all thinking of different ways of understanding our purpose in life and how we work along with various other explanations involving the world around them. Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, scientist and writer of the Age of Reason. He had a desire to achieve insight into the nature of man and the universe. He has been called the "Father of Modern Philosophy" and he was one of the most influential philosophers in modern philosophy and many believe he was very ahead of his time. Many think he was similar to Socrates because he was convinced that certain knowledge is gained through reason. He second guessed philosophical works that had been handed down through the Middle Ages; he was the first philosopher to bring all knowledge into a coherent philosophy, the philosophy of truth. Descartes’ concerns were with a certain knowledge that which we can know for sure as well as...
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...Khalia Mone’t Brenson, @02577445 Introduction to Philosophy, Dr. Verharen Fall 2009 What are the differences between the philosophies of sociology and psychology toward mental illness? Table of Contents I. Introduction P.1 II. What is Philosophy? P.2-14 i. An Introduction to Philosophyby George S. Fullerton ii. Principles of Philosophyby Rene Descartes iii. The Gift of Fire by Richard Mitchell iv. I and Thou by Martin Buber v. Philosophy: Who needs it? by Ayn Rand III. Sociology P.15-19 i. The philosophy of sociology ii. Sociology towards mental illness IV. Psychology P...
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...to Non-Human Life Randi A. Teel PHI208 Ethic and Moral Reasoning Instructor Galen Johnson June 23, 2014 \ Animals: Deserving of Utilitarianism? 1 Utilitarianism is best defined as given a choice between two acts, the one that creates greater happiness for the greatest number of people should be chosen. This should be applied to non-human beings as well. Animals are essential in our everyday lives. They provide companionship, nourishment for our bodies and can provide amazement to our eyes when seen in their natural habitat. They are important in human life. They deserve respect. We as the superior being should make decisions for non-humans based on the utilitarianism approach creating greater happiness or good for the greater numbers. Our decisions based on this approach when making choices where non-humans are concerned will be a beneficial choice for both humans and animals. So what do humans and animals have in common? René Descartes, for instance, regarded animals as simply “physical bodies that lacked minds or souls; thus, animals were similar to organic machines.” (Mosser, 2013) This type of thought is also coincides with Western and Christian thinking. That is, all is ranked from highest to lowest. God and Angels are the highest with humans, animals...
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...body alone but extends to his mind, soul, spirit and other attributes of man. But we cannot talk about the essence of man without the existence of man because without an existence of man, man’s essence is of no use and nothing to talk about. This brings about the proposition ‘existence precedes essence’. The proposition that existence precedes essence is a central claim of existentialism, which reverses the traditional philosophical view that the essence (the nature) of a thing is more fundamental and immutable than its existence (the mere fact of its being). To existentialists, human beings—through their consciousness—create their own values and determine a meaning for their life because the human being does not possess any inherent identity or value. By posing the acts that constitute him or her, he or she makes his or her existence more significant. Also Saint Thomas Aquinas specifies that a true human being has both essence and existence. Man is rather different than any other beings like animals, plants and inanimate creatures. And it is apparent that man cannot only be evaluated in terms of physical features. Some describe man as having certain members like eyes,...
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...Philosophers sometimes view the idea of human freedom of action as the real problem of free will, but this classification is one of the main misunderstandings in both subject matters. The misunderstanding between freedom and free will may have begun as early as the time when Thomas Hobbes and David Hume, argued their cases to support the theory of the modern concept of compatibilism. From both Hobbes’ and Hume’s perspective, to be free to act on one's will is basically to be free of external restrictions, limitations, constraints, and controls. From their perspective, the absence any external constraint gives makes the agent freedom to do as he or she wills, even if the person’s will itself is determined (or predetermined) by causal laws of nature. Factors That Affect Personal Development Take a moment to consider all of the genetic and environmental factors that have shaped who you are today, and you will quickly become overwhelmed. From gender, race, and socioeconomic background—to family dynamics, education, and genetics—there are millions of factors that have converged to make you who you are. Most people believe that humans are responsible for their own actions and that they all have the opportunity to make the right choices. But when you consider how large a role race, gender, wealth, and family upbringing all play in shaping an individual, can you truly believe that everyone has the same opportunities? Furthermore, are there some conditions under which people cannot be considered...
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...the small town of Wrington, he later passed away on October 28, 1704. He received his early education at Westminster School and then at Christ Church, Oxford (a college). Much like Hobbes that came before him, he found little use for the Aristotelian philosophy taught. Having great success as a student, he later went on to hold several teaching roles the college. Often heralded as one of the founder of the Empiricism and a major contributor to many of the contemporary theories about governments, he was influenced greatly by earlier philosophers like Rene Descartes, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton and Francis Bacon. A larger chunk of his work was completed whilst living at Lord Ashley’s residence, Exeter house. While living there he continued to partake in philosophical discussions and it is from these discussions that he claims the motivation for writing his most famous piece, completed while in exile, “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” stems from. He states that:...
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...Philosophy, ever since its beginning has been used as a tool to answer, and to help better understand complex questions regarding logic, knowledge, truth, and even human existence itself. It can be defined as love of wisdom. Philosophy goes beyond facts, measurements, and scientific findings and it depends on judgment, reflection, and intuition, by this definition we can gather that philosophy is, essentially, the pursuit of knowledge or understanding on a much higher level than usual. In this paper I will present my views on philosophy as a whole by reviewing and evaluating myself as a philosopher during the duration of this course and how I believe this course has affected the way I think, as well as how I benefited from it. This was my first major introduction into the study of philosophy, and I can honestly say that it has had a major impact on my belief system. Many of my views have changed and my overall view on life is much different than it was before I started this class. I come from a culture where I was taught never to ask questions, and to always believe whatever I was told, especially if someone much older said it, but taking this course has expanded my thinking capacity, and just like Descartes, who was a rationalist, someone who believed that true knowledge is produced by logical and critical thinking, I have upgrade my thinking to a whole new level. This course has helped me to view situations in a subjective manner where I don’t have to use data to determine...
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...model and the holistic model. In this essay I will discuss all four models by looking at their advantages and limitations in health care. The biomedical model is a dominant model of disease in contemporary medicine and was devised by medical scientists for the study of disease. It was created as a scientific model therefor involved a set of scientific assumptions and rules. Biomedicine is the principal way of understanding health and illness. It is widely accepted by the medical profession and also by the non-professional population (Barry, Yuill 2012). The models rapidly became popular in health care approaches over the nineteenth century and focused on biological factors only. It is based on the assumptions about the functioning of the human body and the nature of a...
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