...three-category taxonomy of motivation, adding ‘‘hedonic’’ motivation to the traditional dichotomy of ‘‘extrinsic’’ and ‘‘intrinsic’’ motivation. It uses case studies gleaned from the literature to explore the interactive effects between the different motivators in two different types of knowledge-intensive organisations: professional bureaucracy and operating adhocracy. Findings – Within a professional bureaucracy, the social dilemma of knowledge sharing may be overcome through normative motivation, with provision of hedonic motivation through extrinsic incentives such as training and career progression. In an operating adhocracy where interdependent teamwork is vital, it may be overcome through normative alignment reinforced by intensive socialisation. Extrinsic motivators that align with hedonic motivation may also reinforce the propensity for knowledge sharing. In both organisational types, financial extrinsic incentives do not appear to be relevant on their own, and may ‘‘crowd out’’ other motivators. Research limitations/implications – The cases reported were chosen from the existing literature and, although many were not designed specifically to address motivational issues, suggestive conclusions are drawn. Most of the cases were drawn from organisations rooted in the Anglo-American context and thus care would be needed in generalising the findings to organisations in...
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...of certain groups of people becoming its victims, such as young women and the elderly. Hence, there is a concern that the media may be misleading the public’s impression of crime and causing an impractical fear of it. Research evidence to some degree supports the view that there is a link between media use and fear of crime. For example, in the USA, Gerbner et al found that heavy users of television (over four hours a day) had greater levels of fear of crime. However, the existence of such correlations doesn’t verify that media viewing causes fear. For example, it may be that those who are already afraid of going out at night watch more TV just because they stay in more. Moreover, right realists argue that the underlying problem is socialisation and the underclass rather than the influence of media. Charles Murray argues that the crime rate is increasing because of a rising underclass or “new rabble” who are defined by their deviant behaviour and who fail to socialise their children appropriately. According to Murray, the underclass is growing in both the...
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... SECI, Ba and Leadership: a Uni®ed Model of Dynamic Knowledge Creation Ikujiro Nonaka, Ryoko Toyama and Noboru Konno Despite the widely recognised importance of knowledge as a vital source of competitive advantage, there is little understanding of how organisations actually create and manage knowledge dynamically. Nonaka, Toyama and Konno start from the view of an organisation as an entity that creates knowledge continuously, and their goal in this article is to understand the dynamic process in which an organisation creates, maintains and exploits knowledge. They propose a model of knowledge creation consisting of three elements: (i) the SECI process, knowledge creation through the conversion of tacit and explicit knowledge; (ii) `ba', the shared context for knowledge creation; and (iii) knowledge assets, the inputs, outputs and moderators of the knowledge-creating process. The knowledge creation process is a spiral that grows out of these three elements; the key to leading it is dialectical thinking. The role of top management in articulating the organisation's knowledge vision is emphasised, as is the important role of middle management (`knowledge producers') in energising ba. In summary, using existing knowledge assets, an organisation creates new knowledge through the SECI process that takes place in ba, where new knowledge, once created, becomes in turn the basis for a new spiral of knowledge creation. = 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. As Alvin Tof¯er...
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...about the European identity? Contents Abstract Page 4 Introduction ` Page 5 Chapter 1: Constructing a European identity Page 8 Chapter 2: The European Union as a normative actor Page 21 Chapter 3: The Belarusian problem Page 30 Conclusion Page 49 Bibliography Page 52 Abstract Europe has embarked upon an unprecedented process of state integration witnessing the widespread deferral of policy making to intergovernmental institutions. The European Union’s institutionalism has facilitated an assimilation of values into an increasingly coherent, if complex regional identity. A normative self-conception has emerged that Brussels has sought to project onto its external relations through the Common Foreign and Security Policy. Brussels increasingly considers itself a transformative actor in global politics offering an alternative to great power realpolitik. This paper finds that while European multilateralism offers an environment conducive to a normative foreign policy, the extent to which it is able to exert any ideational influence is constrained by the level of engagement it is willing to pursue. Europe maintains a policy of isolating the Lukashenko regime and has failed to engage Belarusian civil society. As a result it has had a negligible impact on Belarusian political culture. Europe’s failure to adequately engage Belarus also suggests a contradiction within the European identity construction. Introduction ...
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...Mass Media Revision Notes The mass media are forms of communication which reach large audiences. They can be split into two groups: Traditional media * TV * Radio * Cinema * Music * Newspapers * Books New media * Internet * Dvd * Digital television * E mail In society today it is very difficult to avoid the mass media. There is a division between the press (newspapers) and broadcasting (TV and radio) The press in the UK Newspapers and magazine which are privately owned and are commercially run for profit They are financed through advertising and sales which means they are in competition with each other Some newspapers reach a national market such as the Guardian and others a local market such as the Yorkshire Evening Post Newspapers can be divided to broad sheets which is considered to be the quality press and the tabloids such as the Sun and the Mirror Broadcasting in Britain This refers to the TV and the radio. In the UK we have public television which is the BBC – this is funded by the TV licence fee. We also have commercial television which aims to make money through advertising. In recent years there has been a move towards the sponsorship of programmes – Cadbury’s and Coronation Street – and now companies can pay to see their products feature in TV programmes, this is called product placement. Technological developments In 1980 there were only three channels – BBC1, BBC2 and ITV – we now have additional terrestrial channels...
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...Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole.[1][2] For many the term usually refers to Christians and churches belonging to the Roman Catholic Church in full communion with the Holy See.[3] For others it refers to the churches of the first millennium, including, besides the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Assyrian Church of the East.[4][5] And for others again it refers to "adhering to the catholic faith as it has been inherited from the earliest Christians ... seeking to restore the faith and order of the primitive church",[6] as claimed by the Anglican Communion, various Lutheran churches,[6][7][8] and other Reformation and post-Reformation churches.[9][10] The Catholic claim of continuity is based on, among other factors, Apostolic succession, especially in conjunction with adherence to the Nicene Creed.[11] In the sense of indicating historical continuity of faith and practice, the term "catholicism" is at times employed to mark a contrast to Protestantism, which tends to look solely to the Bible as interpreted on the principles of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation as its ultimate standard.[12] It was thus used by the Oxford Movement.[13] This contrast, however, is not so clearcut for Anglican theologians such as Alister McGrath: "Anglicanism is not...
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... Archer: feminists argue that we cant say there is one hegemonic masculinity, there are more Paul Willis: lads and earoles study Mac and Ghail: macho lads – no factory jobs anymore Jackson: some boys at school don’t study as they wish to look “cool” Burdsey: Asian footballers want to fit in Complicit: new man, they adopt a shared role in the family Marginalised: loss of masculinity, unemployed men Subordinate: gay men behaving differently to the expectations of the dominant hegemonic masculinity Creation and reinforcement: Family: Ann Oakley: cannalisation, verbal appellation, toys and activities, primary socialisation – parents Mitchell and green: mother – daughter bond is strong in wc families Archer: family is pivotal – muslim boy masculine identity Frosh et al: boys talked about their parents – mothers expressive, fathers instrumental Charles: men are still seen as providers and women as carers Mass media: Marsh and Millard: superhero texts Gauntlett: magazines offering advice on how to be attractive – relates to gender Gill and herdieckerhoff: chick lit, dad lit, mum lit – body is key source of identity Storey: elvis...
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...report is a specific form of writing that is organised around concisely identifying and examining issues, events, or findings that have happened in a physical sense, such as events that have occurred within an organisation, or findings from a research investigation. These events can also pertain to events or issues that have been presented within a body of literature. The key to report writing is informing the reader simply and objectively about all relevant issues. There are three features that, together, characterise report writing at a very basic level: a pre-defined structure, independent sections, and reaching unbiased conclusions. Having a Pre-Defined Structure At a very basic level, a report can be distinguished from an essay by the creation of headings into which information is organised. Broadly, these headings may indicate sections within a report, such as an Introduction, Discussion, and Conclusion. Within the main section(s) making up the body of the report (the Discussion in the example just given), there is often an opportunity to create your own structure according to the literature you have sourced, your development of ideas, and the task assigned. An example of a report structure is presented below. Two versions are provided in which the first version indicates main sections and sub-sections through indenting, and the second does so through a numbering system. You may find that the headings provide a link between sections, without the necessity of a linking...
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...family forms such as single parent (majority are female headed households, common between West Indians and Puerto Ricans), blended and reconstituted (formed by adults who have married previously and who bring their children from their previous marriage to the new marriage, forming a new family unit), extended (based on common descent, commonly consists of a married couple and one or more married children), cohabiting couples and complex families (co-wives' economic and political interests, especially with regards to their children, their labour, and their allegiances to their kin, often conflict). These type of families are a cross-culturally universal social institution which do not have to based on traditional meaning of the family but identity construction, economic production (distribution of goods, labor demands, inheritance) and reproduction (biological or cultural). The reason of the decline in nuclear family is industrialization, according to functionalist sociologists. Before the half of 18th century, the...
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...http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/1133/03chapter2.pdf 12 CHAPTER 2 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE Chapter 1 explored the background to and the motivation for this study, with specific reference to organisational culture and organisational commitment as the main constructs. In this chapter the concept “organisational culture” is explored in more detail. This chapter’s main focus areas include the following theoretical aspects of the concept organisational culture: background, definition, model, dimensions, development, change and management of culture. 2.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND TO THE CONCEPT ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE Social scientists have explored the notion of organisational culture as a perspective in organisational theory over the past decades. Brown (1998, p 2) states that “current interests in organisational culture stems from at least four different sources: climate research, national cultures, human resource management and from conviction approaches which emphasise the rational and structural nature of the organisation to be unable to offer a full explanation of organisational behaviour”. Research findings by means of organisational climate surveys that were conducted in the 1970s suggest that organisational culture seems to be a sophisticated approach to understand the beliefs and attitudes of individual members about their respective organisations (Brown, 1998). The origin of organisational culture from a national culture point of view is based, among others,...
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...Capital and Communities of Practice El-Sayed Abou-Zeid John Molson School of Business, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada el-sayed@jmsb.concordia.ca Abstract: There is almost a consensus that tacit component of organisational knowledge is of critical strategic importance because, unlike explicit knowledge, it is both inimitable and appropriable. Because of its characteristics, organisational tacit knowledge is usually created and shared through highly interactive conversation and shared experience, i.e., through a socialisation process. At the firm’s level, the effectiveness of the socialisation process depends on the firm’s social capital. At group level, it has been argued that communities of practice form the basis of a firm's ability to create and share tacit knowledge. Therefore, investigating the relationship between social capital, communities of practice and individual human action is crucial in understanding the dynamic of cross level knowledge creation and utilisation and in understanding organisational learning process. In order to study this relationship Giddens’ theory of structuration is used as it provides an integrating meta-theory that recognises social reality as constituted by both subjective human actors and by objective institutional properties and attempts to articulate a process-oriented approach that relates the realm of human action and institutional realm. Based on Giddens’ theory a model of the interaction between human action and social capital of...
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...1694 words Andrea Dworkin stated that “the feminine ideal by definition turns a woman into a function, deprives her of any individuality that is self-serving or self-created”. With reference to The Bell Jar, consider the view that Sylvia Plath would agree with all parts of this statement? The Bell Jar could be regarded as an archetypal feminist work in which women are presented as repressed and prevented from any possibility of becoming wholly autonomous beings, free from relationships with men, unable to define their own existence. Esther conforms to this depiction and is perpetually oppressed by misogynistic ideology. However, we must consider that she is not entirely deprived of an expressive disposition, and so it could be argued that, although she may not be entirely “self-serving” or “self-created”, she does possess an individualistic nature made evident through her literary self-expression. A sense of individuality becomes clear when noting that Esther, despite being a female of modest background, has obtained a prestigious scholarship to New York- a city of growth and freedom. She has ended up “Steering New York like her own private car” and here the use of the word “own” suggests that her ambition is self-controlled and so she possesses an individualistic temperament conflicting with Dworkin’s belief. Moreover, Esther has the opportunity to write for a magazine, suggesting that she is more creatively liberalised than many males during this era. Esther’s self-critical...
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...Unit 3 Sociology; Beliefs in Society Different theories of Ideology, Science and Religion An Ideology is a closed set of beliefs that reject other views. A Belief is a framework of ideas through which an individual makes sense of the world. They are generally connected to a religion and based on faith with no evidence needed. Science is based on evidence, factual, objective and regarded as the truth. Religion is based on faith, not truth. It is a fixed view of how the world is and claims to be the truth. Theories of ideology Marxists believe that the ideas that people hold are formed by their position in society, and ideology is seen as the ideas of particular social groups reflecting their interests. The Marxist view is associated with the view that there is a Dominant Ideology (the set of ideas and beliefs of the most powerful groups in society – ruling class). Althusser suggested the dominant ideology was spread through a series of Ideological State Apparatuses (agencies [media, religion, education etc] that spread the dominant ideology and justify the power of the dominant social class). Gramsci developed the concept Hegemony (dominance in society of the ruling class’s set of ideas over others, and acceptance of and consent to them by the rest of society). Pluralism is a view that sees power in society spread among a wide variety of interest groups and individuals, with no single one having a monopoly on power. A Pluralist Ideology is the set of ideas reflecting...
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...Session 2: Organizations over time Explaining Development and Change in Organizations * Van de Ven &Poole (1995) * Change: empirical observation of difference in form, quality, or state over time in an organisational entity (may be an individual’s job, a work group, an organisational strategy, a program, a product, or the overall organisation). * Development: change process * Process theory: how and why an organisational entity changes and develops * 4 basic theories explaining change processes in organisations: *Imminent=bevorstehend Teleology: * assumes that the entity in purposeful and adaptive * needs creativity Dialectical: * e.g. acquisitions: two firms have different “theses” and need to find antithesis * e.g. multinational firm: international and national HQ “compete” * there is no assurance that dialectical conflicts produce creative syntheses * the desired synthesis creates win-win situation * either the maintenance of actual thesis or its replacement with the antithesis creates win-lose * in terms of organisational change: * maintenance of status quo stability * replacement with antithesis or synthesis change Evolution: * Variation: Change from current routines and competencies (intentional & blind) * Selection: Elimination of certain types of variations (external & internal selection) * Retention: Selected variations are preserved, duplicated, reproduced * e.g....
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...To what extent are people subordinated to systems and organisations in the 21st century? The purpose of the ensuing study is to critically evaluate the role played by individuals in organisations in the 21st century. The author aims to conclude the analysis with a logical and coherent explanation to the roles individuals play in organisation. Hence, for the purpose of this study, organisational life is dissected with the help of three distinct dimensions; effects of national culture on organisational culture, power and politics within organisations and psychological ownership. The study bases strong emphasis to the formulation of organisational culture and how it differs from national culture, it then moves on to specifically outline the culture of male dominated organisations and aims to address the issue of why there exists a culture of gender bias within organisations, and finally, with the help of psychological theories, the study aims to establish the outcomes of individual psychological emotions towards an organisation. With the help of the above, the study aims to reach a rationale on better understanding people and organisations by outlining the culture systems and roles played by the former in the latter. Kroebar & Kluckholm defined culture as: ‘a set of patterns, explicit and implicit, of behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbol, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiment in artefacts; the essential core...
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