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西方经济学的"圣经"---------《国富论》
姓名:牟文杰 学号:201122030183
班级:2011级P2班

温总理曾说:“《国富论》与《道德情操论》,在我心中具有同样重要的地位。”约翰 梅纳德 凯恩说:“至少在300字内,人们都将在市场经济中生活,不会有人像阿尔伯特 爱因斯坦推翻牛顿力学那样推翻亚当斯密的《国富论》。”
《国富论》是一部彻底改变了劳动和财富观念的书。《国富论》研究的对象是人与人交换是的经济行为,亚当斯密认为经济行为的出发点是利己心,每个人都追求自己的经济利益,这是人的自然现象。在书中,亚当斯密提出了举世闻名的“看不见的手”的观点。在促成我们现代生活方式的诸多因素中,《国富论》可媲美任何一本重要的现代经典。《国富论》一书成为针对重商主义(认为大量贮备贵金属是经济成功不可或缺的理论)最经典的反驳。《国富论》也否定了重农主义学派对土地的重视,相反的,斯密认为劳动才是最重要的,而劳动分工能大量的提升生产效率。再者,《国富论》一书的重点之一便是自由市场,自由市场表面看似混乱而毫无拘束,实际上确是由一双被成为“看不见的手”所指引,引导市场生产出正确的产品数量和种类。《国富论》总结了近代各国资本主义的发展经验,批判地吸纳了它之前的重要经济理论,对国民经济的运行过程作了系统的整体描述,是现代经济学的集大成之作。
接下来先和大家分享一下这本书的历史背景及在什么样的社会形态下亚当斯密创作出这本著作的,亚当·斯密(1723~1790)--经济学的主要创立者。1768年开始着手著述《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》简称《国富论》)。亚当斯密历经三年完成这了这本巨作的创造。顷刻间风靡全球;被众人称作为“现代经济学之父”和“自由企业的守护神”。亚当斯密在创作《国富论》时正处英国资产阶级革命刚刚结束的时候。众所周知,英国是世界上最早的资本主义国家,但是当时的资产阶级革命相对不够完善,封建势力刚刚向资产阶级妥协;就是在这种情况下,当时的英国还拥有着大量的封建残余,仍然可以在经济上和资本家互相制衡;而当时的资本家也都是一些新兴的资产阶级,很多商人看不到商业发展的前景,不知该怎么做。就是在这种相互制衡的市场环境中,从东南面的西班牙和葡萄牙的新航路,到通过殖民掠夺的方式夺得了美洲亚洲和非洲的绝大多数殖民地获得了大量的资本积累,再到法国夺得西欧的陆上霸权,进而霸占着国际的海路贸易。在这种四周环敌的地理位置与贸易格局之下,大英帝国如何崛起,新兴资产阶级如何生存,在这些新兴的资本家的面前是一片黑暗。也就是在这个时候,亚当斯密的《国富论》腾空出世使得很多商人豁然开朗。迄今为止,世界上的商人仍然折服于书中的理论。

接下来,我们就来分享一下书中的几个理论:
首先,亚当斯密在《国富论》中开篇就谈到了劳动分工。在书中,亚当斯密举了个制钉子工厂的例子,把制钉子这个职业分成大约18中不同的工序,每个工序都有专门人才从事。他认为劳动分工和市场竞争是国民财富增加不可或缺的两个方面。亚当斯密认为,分工之所以能提高劳动生产力主要有三点:一、分工是劳动专门化,可以提高了工人的熟练程度;增强一个工作对工作技术。二、由一种工作转到另一种工作通常需要损失很多时间,有了分工,可以免除这种损失。三、许多简化劳动和缩减劳动的机械发明,只有在分工的基础上方才可能。但是亚当斯密也认为分工的唯一不利的结果是造成了不平等的现象。因为分工使人终生从事一项简单的操作,没有机会发挥他们的智力和才能,使他们变得愚钝无知。例如现在很多的大公司,职位非常多,而且职责分的也很细。这样表面上看似是一个萝卜一个坑,每个人都只要恪尽职守就可以等到相应的回报。但是带来的相应的弊端就是每天重复着枯燥的流程。而且没有什么机会去学习新的技能,进而很多人每天都是碌碌无为的工作。常常有人抱怨感觉未来没前途,事业没发展。我想这就是分工所带来的弊端吧。

亚当斯密的第二个理论就是货币理论,货币的首要功能就是流通手段,持有人持有的货币是为了购买其他物品。当物物交换发展到以货币为媒介交换后,商品的价值就用货币来衡来那个。这时,便产生了货币的另一功能---价值尺度。亚当斯密认也谈到了货币的储藏功能、支付功能。但是,他特别强调了货币的流通功能。货币似乎从交换发展中自发地和客观地产生的。货币是商品,是从普通商品中分离出来的一种人人都愿意接受的商品,是一种使交换灵便易行的技术工具。货币最大的优点就是他便于携带,且是一个很好的价值尺度,交换媒介。当初物物交换的年代人们无法衡量每件物品的具体价值,只能靠个人的需求来衡量这个物品是否值钱。但是有了货币后,统一了定量单位,人们就很容易的通过货币这个价值尺度来衡量每个物品的货币价值。所以我们用货币,比用其他任何商品,都更容易取得我们所需要的物品,因为它是价值的尺度,我们便用各种商品所能换得的货币量,来估计他们各种商品的价值。随时世界的扁平化,各国货币之间的兑换汇率规范化也给货币的国际流通带来了益处。跨国间的国际贸易也可以用本地或者外币来作为产品或服务交易的交换媒介。

亚当斯密的第三个理论就是价值论,提及价值,亚当斯密指出,价值涵盖使用价值与交换价值,前者表示特定财货的效用,后者表示拥有此财货取另一财货的购买力。进一步指出,具有最大使用价值的财货,往往不具交换价值,水及钻石是其著名的例子。不过水与钻石价值比较是百年之后边际效用学派才圆满解决此问题。价值论包括使用价值----就是表示特定的物品的效用。使用价值很大的东西,往往具有极小的交换价值,甚或没有价值。那么交换价值就是指由于占有某物而取得对他种货物的购买力。交换价值很大的东西,往往具有极小的使用价值甚或没有。亚当斯密认为劳动决定价值规律,只适用于简单商品产生,不适用于资本主义社会。他感到耗费劳动决定价值同购买劳动决定价值之间有矛盾,特别是感到在资本主义社会中二者量的不等。因此便抛弃了劳动的价值论,转变为收入构成价值论。迄今为止,商品价值一直都是由三种基本收入---工资,利润和地租三个部分来构成和决定的。工资、利润和地租是一切收入和一切可交换价值的三个根本源泉。在结合分工理论,不同的分工工资就不同,工资是由工人给公司创造的效益所决定的。

亚当斯密的第四个理论就是分配理论,即劳动工资、资本利润及土地地租自然率之决定理论。亚当斯密指出,尽管雇主拥有抑低工资的力量,工资仍有其最低的水平,此一最低水平是劳动者必须能够维持其本生活,假定社会工人需求增加或工资基金提高,工资将高于最低水平。就另一个角度言之,一国国富、资本或所得增加,将促使工资上涨,工资上涨则促进人口增加。资本利润之高低如同劳动工资,决定于社会财富之增减,资本增加可促使工资上涨,却是利润为之下降。亚当斯密指出,假定商人投资同一事业,因此彼此互相竞争,自然致使利润降低。亚当斯密着重的对工资提出了两种不同的见解,第一种见解就是工资是劳动的报酬,是由劳动生产物或劳动创造价值的一部分来构成,是劳动者维持其基本生活、延续后代所必需的收入。这种工资理论是以劳动价值理论为基础。第二种见解是劳动的价格和价值。在斯密看来,劳动作为商品也同其他商品一样,有市场就挨个和自然价格。自然价格是由维持工人及其家属生活所必需的生活资料决定;市场价格取决于雇主与劳动者之间的斗争,最终取决于市场上的供求关系。这种工资理论是以生产费用论为基础。斯密认为工人的工资必然随着资本的积累和国民财富的增长而不断提高,这是因为,“收入和资本的增加,就是国民财富的增加。”

亚当斯密的第五个理论是资本积累论,资本累积是大量进行分工必备的另一要素。分工的扩张与生产效率的提高跟资本的总额成正比。资本的累积必须在分工之前进行,因为分工需要使用许多特殊的设备与机械料,样样都需要以资本来购取。分工越细,工具的需要就越多,资本就显得越重要。透过分工过程,可增加劳动生产量,提高国民所得,增强国民储蓄意愿与能力。未被利用或者分摊的利润就是资本积累。剩余价值的资本化,剩余价值是资本积累的唯一源泉,而资本积累则是扩大再生产的重要源泉。资本积累和扩大再生产是资本主义发展的客观的必然趋势。资本积累的规模取决于剩余价值的数量及剩余价值分割为积累基金和消费基金的比例。在剩余价值分割比例既定的条件下,一切影响剩余价值量的因素都会影响积累量。这些因素主要有对劳动力的剥削程度;剥削程度越高,由同量可变资本得到的剩余价值越多,积累的数量也就越多。所以提高劳动强度、延长工作日、压低工资等办法都会促进资本的积累。另一方面就是社会劳动生产率水平。随着劳动生产率的提高,产品的价值降低,一定量的剩余价值表现更大量的剩余产品。再一方面就是所用资本和所费资本的差额。所用资本是指生产中发挥作用的全部劳动资料的价值。所费资本是指么此生产过程中实际耗费并转移到新产品中去的劳动资料的价值。这两部分的差额部分,在生产中也发挥作用但价值没有转移到新产品中去,其使用是无偿的。这个差额部分越大,生产产品的消费越少,获得的剩余价值就会越多,从而增加资本积累。

亚当斯密的第六个理论是赋税理论,是指导赋税行为或财政活动的思想。一定的赋税行为或财政活动,总有一定的思想给予指导。这种思想经过一定的重复、贯彻和修正,变逐渐外化为理论,成为实践活动所遵循的基本原则。这中理论可有层次之分,其中经过累世传承而贯穿整个社会,并反映这个社会赋税制度基本特征和基本精神的那个层次,我们称为赋税基本理论。即公平、确定、便利、经济。

公平:一国国民应尽可能按其能力以支持政府,亦即国民应按其在政府保护下所享有的利得比例纳税。
确定:各国民应当缴纳的税捐,须确定并不得随意变更,缴纳时期、缴纳方法、应付税额,都应对纳税人清楚宣示。
便利:一切税捐,都应在最适合于纳税人的时间与方法收之。
经济:每一税捐都应善加设计,务使公民缴付国库以外,在他的财力上受到最少可能的激动。斯密主张国家的职能就是保证有一个发展生产、积累财富的和平环境,也就是起到一个“守夜人”的作用,政府只要像一个“守夜人”那样防止外来的暴行和侵略、并维持公共治安就可以了,不要干预经济的自由。
《国富论》是一部伟大的著作,亚当斯密把人的自利心和功利心做了和谐的统一,让我们知道自利与功利并不是矛盾的,而是相辅相成的,有利于整体社会的进步与发展。中国现在就处于这样的一个社会经济形态之下,很多领域还存在着垄断、不平等、欺骗、霸权等显现。食品安全,交通安全,教育问题。但这些并不是市场经济的错,而是我们的市场经济还不够充分,当中还存在着过多的政府行为。政府肩负着引导,疏通和解决各种各样的市场经济问题。

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