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Science & Technology of Ancient China

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中国古代科技
摘要:
中国是世界上的文明古国,曾为人类文明做出过卓越的贡献,在世界文明史上有着重要地位。然而在近代,中国却由于落后于其他西方国家,经历了太多的挫折。如今的中国人对自己的文明常常抱有怀疑态度,甚至产生妄自菲薄的情绪。本文从中国古代科技发展的角度, 列举一些中华文明的具有现代科学概念的成就,同时,冷静分析造成近代科技落后的原因。希望通过清楚准确认识我们民族的过去,树立我们的信念与信心,改正不足,为续写中华文明的辉煌篇章做出自己的贡献。

正文:
一、前言
人类文明的每一步发展都和科技进步密切相关。科学技术是人类文化史上最重要的内容。在这个领域,我们的祖先以其特有的智慧取得了辉煌的成就,炎黄子孙至今引以自豪。中国科学技术在世界上处于领先地位达15个世纪之久,近一半的重大科技成就均源于中国,从而为现代科学技术奠定了基础。

二、代表性成就
1、数学
数学是中国古代灿烂文化的一个重要组成部分,它具有很强的抽象性,是人类实践的高度概括和总结。作为其他科学能持续深入发展的基础,数学有着不可替代的重要作用,中国古代数学的发达是当时中国能保持世界领先地位的原因之一。
古代数学的发展源于史前农业。要发展农业生产,就需要从事天文历法的研究,水利的治理,上地丈量以及工具制造等与之密切相关的活动。这一切都离不开数学的运用。传说公元前二十六世纪的黄帝的臣子“隶首作数”,可以设想,中国数学研究起源是很早的。
中国是世界上最早采用九个数字同位值名称相结合的记数法的国家,早在商代(公元前十四世纪)就已出现,这比印度早了近2000年,而欧洲直到十世纪左右才从印度学会这种计数方法。同样,对数学运算有着决定性作用的“〇”的出现也是世界上最早的,可追溯到战国时代(公元前四世纪)。 如今世人皆知的“九九乘法口诀”更是早在春秋时期以前就已出现,且在当时的知识分子眼中不过是不值一提的“小术”。由于数学的持续进步,我们的祖先在汉代左右还相继发明了筹算法(类似今天的乘法算式),以及至今仍在继续使用珠算。中国古代对数学的深入研究还包括分数、小数、负数、勾股定理、圆周率、代数方程等,这些研究成果对中国的科学发展,甚至世界的科学发展,都有着不可忽视的作用。
2、天文学
天文学起始于人类对天空的好奇,在观察天空的过程中,人们逐渐发现了天空与时间和空间的联系,从而开始了对广袤天空的专门观测。
中国古代对太空的观测活动很多,且大多主要星体都有详细记录,大多数对于当今天文学家来说都具有较高的参考价值。而在古代,天文学最重要的实际运用是历法的建立,相较于其他文明古国,中国的历法不仅包括年月日的配合,还包括日月五星运动规律的推求及日食、月食的预测等等,内容最为完备。时至今日,即使因为便于世界活动的开展,而实行公历;但并未废止农历,且至今在中国农业中仍普遍地使用。由此古人之天文学智慧可见一斑。
3、医学
中医作为中国独有的一门学科,并在西方医学的冲击下能持续发展到今天,实属不易。究其原因是在几千年的临床实践中,不仅积累了丰富经验,而且通过不断总结提高,形成一套独特完整的医学体系。
汉代是中医发展的重要时期,外科出现了华佗,内科出现了张仲景,与战国时期对脉学作出重大贡献的扁鹊并称为中医三大祖师,在中医著作方面,中药学专著有《神农本草经》,内科诊断学方面有《伤寒杂病论》,与战国时期的《黄帝内经》并称中医三大医典。在马王堆出土医书以前,这是中国最早的三部医学文献,两千多年来,对于中医一直起着纲领性的指导作用。
中医对于我们每一个生长在这块土地上的人来说都再熟悉不过,由于篇幅不再详述,值得一提的是中医外科,华佗的中医外科在当时乃至此后很长一段时间都处于相当先进的水平,据《三国志》记载,“若病结积在内,针药所不能及,当须刳割考,便饮其麻沸散,须臾便如醉死无所知,因破取。病若在肠中,便断肠湔洗,缝腹膏摩,四五日差。不痛,人亦不自寤。一月之间,即平复矣”。华佗外科技术达到这样高的水平是由于在他以前中医外科已经有了长足发展,其中最突出的是疮肿疗法和导引术。可惜华佗的著作在历史长河中一卷也没有流传下来,今日的中医外科因此仅有少量的疗法存世。
4、其他学科
由于各种原因,中国古代的诸如物理学、化学、声学、冶金、地理、农学等学科都只停留在了实用性较强的技术层面,大多被称为实验性科学,缺乏更深层理论基础。所谓的物理学和化学,其实是用现今的理解来把古代的东西往里面装,只能算作现代学科的一小部分,用技术来对其定义更加恰当。
以物理学为例,大到建筑、车船、航运等,小到我们今天还随处可见称重用的秤,都充满了物理学的使用,据考证,中国古人在公元前3-6世纪就对物理学中的力和力矩有了一定的认识。但却只停留在使用范畴,并未进行更抽象本质的思考。 炼丹术可以说是中国古代的化学启蒙,然而由于技术条件的限制,并且其反应过程太过抽象,因此,中国的化学成就也只停留在偶然发现的火药配方,停留在实验性研究的层面。
其他大部分学科的性质与以上两种学科情况类似,在此不再赘述。

三、近代科技与中国的思考
为什么历史悠久,文明灿烂,领先世界上千年的中国没有发展出近代科技,这是每一个感叹中国伟大历史成就的人产生的疑问。
这要从两个方面进行分析,一方面是历史中几次重要的转折,一方面是中国古代科技发展特点与西方的不同。
1、历史转折
第一次是秦始皇焚书坑儒,禁百家言。它开了一个极坏的先例,表示君权凌驾于一切之上,知识分子地位明显降低了。春秋战国时期,君权不甚强,知识分子地位较高。如孔、孟、墨翟等许多人,一无家资、二无禄位,完全靠自己的知识名满天下,抗礼诸侯。这种社会状态使士人重视自己的人格,珍重自己的知识和学问,并促使他们创立新说。这也是春秋战国出现了科学技术的高峰的重要原因。秦以后,最高统治者对士人,能为所用者赏以爵禄,否则生杀惟所欲。士的依附性加强,许多人为了改善自己的政治经济地位,把爵禄看得重于学问,科学研究的积极性受到极大挫伤。 第二次是汉武帝接受董仲舒建议,“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”,从此在思想界确立了儒学的一家统治。起初,儒学作为一种哲学体系是很不完善的。比如在认识论方面就很薄弱:物质世界是怎样构成的?怎样认识客观世界?为此汉儒董仲舒等对它进行了改造,主要是引入战国时期的阴阳五行论,作为解释客观世界的模式。运用这种理论的诀窍在于比附。凡百事物,理有不通,则与阴阳相比,与五行相比。一旦归入阴阳五行,就能以感应、生充加以解释了。这一过程使得世人以为洞尽物理,从此不求深解;社会又禁止别的哲学思想的存在,科学无由进步。儒学长期独家统治造成的哲学的贫困,理论思维的贫乏,是科学技术最终落后下来的主要原因。
第三次是自隋大业三年(公元607年)创立科举制造成的。这首先造成了科学技术与知识分子相脱离,其次造成了科学技术与教育相脱离。进士科以诗赋、策论取人,学校中更不讲授科学技术。唐代以后,虽然数学,医学等都有专门学校,因只培养胥吏和伎术官,使科技与士人的界限更加分明,教育与科技的脱离反倒显著了。
2、发展特点 中国古代科技从形式上看。就是只讲怎样做,不讲为什么这样做。清人王锡阐曾说:“古人立一法必有一理,详于法而不著其理,理具法中。”它的实际效果往往是使一项高超技艺、一道数学难题、一项观测方法等子孙相传,世代仿效,而不知其中道理。而西方科技则着重对“义理”的阐述,他们把对义理的研究作为科学的重要内容之一。这是中西科技的第一点不同。 其次,从研究方法看,中国古代由于哲学的贫乏,对科学方法缺乏深入探讨,所以研究方法比较单调。使用的方法大都以有限多的事实为基础,对事实提出解释,从而构成学科的基本知识,在逻辑学中这种方法称为归纳法。这是古代科学的最主要的研究方法。西方明显不同,自公元前四世纪的亚里士多德,就总结出了科学研究的归纳演绎程序,认为科学研究的基本方法有两个:归纳和演绎。此后公元前三世纪的阿基米德、欧几里得直到近代著名的的牛顿、弗兰西斯·培根、穆勒等。科学方法种类之多、更迭之频繁,令人目不暇接,与中国古代的单一性形成了鲜明对照。其实,归纳法的层次并不低于其他科学方法,对于一些适合的学科可以发挥很好的效果,如前文所列举的如数学、天文学和医学,但一些需要抽象思维和核心理论支撑的学科则会走很多的弯路。
再其次,从内容看,中国古代科技几乎每一个学科都弥漫着阴阳五行论的阴影,而西方科技却充塞着上帝的意志,这是中西古代科技的第三点不同。阴阳五行论作为一种模式,在一定程度上能够反映客观世界的规律性,又没有神学色彩,这是中国古代科技的长处,也是起初处于领先地位的原因之一。但是正由于此,它容易使人满足,并得到盲目信赖。所以在中国古代科技发展的过程中看到的是,不断把阴阳五行论用于各个方面,解释一些未知事实,人们由这些似是而非解释中得到满足,甚至误认模糊为深奥,由于它的“深奥”而陶醉;而对上帝的信赖是虚妄的,同科学很难相容,迫使人们不断觅求新的解释。在西方由于每一个新的成就的出现,都表明“上帝”从那个领域中的退却,科学家们便只把未知世界暂时留给上帝统治着,对科学技术的阻碍反而小一些。

四、结语
中国科技在近代明显地落在了西方的后面。但是中国古代的科技成就向全世界表明,中华民族有着无穷的智慧和创造潜力。通过对于自身不足的分析思考,不断改进自身缺点,突破内部思想和外部社会条件的阻碍。相信,中华民族一定能够做出无愧于全人类的新的贡献,从而跻身于先进文明之林。

参考文献:
[1] 刘洪涛 中国古代科技史.天津:南开大学出版社,1991.3.
[2] 晁中辰 中国古代科技.济南:山东教育出版社,1990.12.
[3] 卢荫慈 中国古代科技之花.太原:山西人民出版社,1983.6.

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