Reporter: Mylane Dela Rama
Topic: Sexual Orientation could be Socially Determined

Sexual Orientation
-is a term frequently used to describe a person’s romantic, emotional or sexual attraction to another person

Kinds of Sexual Orientation: Heterosexuality Homosexuality Bisexuality Asexuality

THEORIES * SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (Albert Bandura) Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling
Assumptions:
1. People are social beings; they react to the environment or respond to stimuli in the environment 2. The idea of an existing innate sex drive is superfluous since trait or trait-like behaviour is created in conjunction with environmental stimuli 3. Social behaviour can occur without external reinforcement; individual cognitions mediate the cues from the environment.

* LABELING THEORY (Social Reaction Theory) Labeling theory is concerned with how the self-identity and behaviour of an individual is influenced (or created) by how that individual is categorized and described by others in their society
Assumptions:

1. Labels applied to individuals influence their behaviour, particularly the application of negative or stigmatizing labels (such as "gay") promote deviant behaviour becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy

References:

http://www.taeterinnen.org/en/04_constructivist.html http://www.psychiatry.org/lgbt-sexual-orientation Social learning theory
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modelling. Among others Albert Bandura (1977: Social Learning Theory) is considered the leading proponent of this theory. The social learning theory especially is applied to the understanding of aggression (A. Bandura (1973): Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behaviour modification. It is considered a bridge between behaviourist learning theories and cognitive learning theories since it has cognitive factors as well as behaviourist factors (actually operant factors). Contrary to behaviourists it is assumed that behaviour can be chosen over another or increased in frequency or intensity without direct reinforcement (like direct rewards). Cognitive elements are introduced via individually generated expectancies about rewards, whereas expectancies are acting as reinforcers of behaviour.
Social learning theory rests on some basic assumptions about humans and human behaviour: * People are social beings; they react to the environment or respond to stimuli in the environment. This means that sexual behaviour can be taught. * Within social learning theory the idea of an existing innate sex drive is superfluous since trait or trait-like behaviour is created in conjunction with environmental stimuli. * Social behaviour can occur without external reinforcement; individual cognitions mediate the cues from the environment.
Social learning theory treats human sexuality as at least partially learned and cognitively oriented. According to Hovell et al. (1994) sexual pleasure and expectancies about sexual pleasure are among the most powerful of all reinforcers.
In social learning theory homosexuality is linked to the early qualitative learning and development of one's gender identity and gender role. Parents, peers, and the media are a source of role models of children. To the extend that these models behave sexually, children tend to imitate sexual behaviour. As children are more likely to be reinforced for same-sex imitation, they tend to pick up same-sex behaviours, which lead to the cognitive association of particular behaviours with male versus female sexuality. Sexuality is intervowen with the development of gender roles. Nevertheless, these behaviours can change over time as the surrounding environment changes (Oliver and Hyde 1993). Other researchers noted that various environmental modelling experiences predict same-sex or opposite-sex preferences in adulthood (van Wyk and Geist (1984): Psychosocial development of heterosexuality, bisexual, and homosexual behaviour. In: Archives of Sexual Behavior 13, pp 505-544).
Thus, aversive experiences of women like sexual abuse, rape etc. might enforce a same-sex preference in adulthood. This finding is predicted from a social learning model, although also from a simpler reinforcement model. But, since positive aspects (pleasurable physical sensation, appreciation of partner) may be a similar strong factor, it could be argued as well, whether a first orgasm is reached via same-sex or opposite-sex contact might have a similar predictive power.
Since homosexuality still is viewed as less moral, less valuable, less normal than heterosexuality it is easy to believe it arises from negative experiences. This conclusion bars the possibility of homosexuality as an outcome of positive experiences - as it is generally presumed for heterosexual love.
d) Labeling theory (Social reaction theory)Labelling theory is concerned with how the self-identity and behaviour of an individual is influenced (or created) by how that individual is categorized and described by others in their society. Labels applied to individuals influence their behaviour, particularly the application of negative or stigmatizing labels (such as "gay") promote deviant behaviour becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy, i.e. an individual who is labeled has little choice but to conform to the essential meaning of that judgment. Consequently, labeling theory postulates that it is possible to prevent social deviance via a limited social shaming reaction in "labelers" and replacing moral indignation with tolerance. Labeling theories are mostly used in criminology explaining delinquency of criminals.
Michel Foucault describes in his lecture Les Anormaux (1975) at Collège de France the development of three figures whose desires made them subject to discipline and control: the "monster", the “unteachable” and the “masturbator”. According to Foucault the power of normalisation replaces the power of jurisdiction. With normalisation medicine comes into power, defining normality and deviance (Faucault’s concept of bio-politics). Labeling shapes reality. New categories had been constructed, like those of mentally illness, race or homosexuality. Homosexuals had to be disciplined and controlled via social values and morals. Homosexuality was categorized as deviant and homosexuals were characterized and labelled as “ill”, “criminal” etc. As soon as homosexuality had been categorized as an individual and social problem, homosexuals had been dunned, stigmatized, treated, set aside, ghettoised. The stigmatization of homosexuality and homosexuals enabled other members of society to deceive themselves in believing they are “pure”, united against those labeled as “different”.
In using the originally negative label “gay” or “lesbian” and assigning a positive meaning to it (“proud to be lesbian/gay”), homosexuals re-appropriate those parts of society they had been excluded of in the process of labelling and stigmatization. Moreover, changing the meaning of assigned label, collective self-esteem is strengthened and a powerful movement arose, gay and lesbian liberation.