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Etnografi Amungme
Suku Amungme tinggal di dataran rendah di sekitar kota Timika, Distrik Agimuga dan pegunungan disekitar Distrik Tembagapura. Permukiman suku Amungme berada di daerah yang dianggap aman dan tidak berpindah-pindah secara turun-temurun.
Menurut tutur leluhur, orang Amungme berasal dari daerah Pangema (Lembah Baliem), Wamena. Hal ini dapat ditelusuri dari kata Kurima, yang artinya “tempat berkumpul” dan Hitigama yang maknanya sebagai tempat pertama kali nenek moyang suku Amungme dan lima suku lainnya, “Suku Dani, Damal, Nduga, Moni, Mee” mendirikan Honai (rumah tinggal) dari alang-alang
Mitologi Riwayat Amungme
Kata Amungme berasal dari: Amung yang berarti utama atau intisari dan Me yang berarti manusia. Maka Amungme bermakna manusia utama. Orang Amungme niscaya, mereka adalah manusia utama di atas manusia lain. Menurut cerita leluhur, suku Amungme berasal goa di Lembah Baliematau Mepingama, yang berarti tempat manusia keluar. Suku Amungme adalah suku yang pertama kali keluar dari gua sebelum suku-suku lain.
Pada zaman semula, manusia berdiam di dalam gua, yang di dalamnya juga terdapat berbagai jenis tanaman dan binatang. Ketika mereka ingin keluar melihat kehidupan luar, tidak ada seorang pun dari mereka yang bisa membuka pintu gua, kecuali seorang tua yang dianggap sebagai kepala keluarga dari kelompok mereka. Ketika waktunya tiba, orang tua itu membuka pintu gua dengan memukulkan tongkatnya seraya membaca mantra. Namun usahanya tidak berhasil walau sudah dicoba beberapa kali. Akhirnya, ia meminta bantuan kepada seorang gadis yang belum pernah mendapat haid untuk memukul-mukul tongkat ke dinding gua sambil menirukan mantranya. Dan terbukalah pintu gua.
Ketika itu, keadaan di luar gua masih tergenang air. Maka untuk mengetahui kondisi di sekitar gua, diutuslah seekor burung nuri dan mereka menanti burung itu kembali. Namun, burung nuri tidak kembali lagi. Kemudian, mereka mengutus seekor burung murai. Saat burung itu kembali, di dalam paruhnya terbawa lumut dari air yang mulai mengering. Hal itu menandakan bumi telah cukup kering. Keesokan harinya orang-orang mulai keluar dari gua dan mulai berjalan searah matahari, arah ke barat.
Selama perjalanan, orang-orang mulai menebarkan bibit-bibit tanaman serta melepaskan binatang-binatang. Lalu, sampailah mereka di gunung Me-arrangguma-bugin, yang artinya gunung kebahagiaan dan perpisahan. Rombongan pertama yang keluar dari gua adalah orang Amungme.
Setelah itu, tiba rombongan berikutnya, tetapi karena tempatnya tidak mencukupi, rombongan itu melanjutkan perjalanan. Rombongan inilah yang menjadi moyang dari suku-suku Ekagi, Moni, dan Wolani, serta suku-suku kecil lain yang berada di sebelah barat dari wilayah kesatuan hidup suku Amungme. Rombongan pertama lalu melanjutkan perjalanan ke arah selatan dari Gunung Perangama-Bugin.
Hakekat Alam dan Perkampungan
Orang Amungme adalah intisari dari alam sekitarnya. Alam memberikan manfaat besar bagi kehidupan sehingga mereka menghargai dan menjaga harmoni alam dengan tidak merusak kesemstaan alam. Jika terjadi perusakan, diniscayai sama dengan merusak diri sendiri.
Makna penghargaan terhadap alam diungkapkan dalam upacara syukur atas berkah yang didapat dari alam dan jika ada ada yang merusak alam terungkap dalam perkataan bijak yang berbunyi:“Enane taram agan iwiatongengee, Em arap nap atendak, mesin arop nap atendak, oleh arop nap atendak, ib arop nan atendak. Kela arop nap atendak iatong heno! Inak juo onen diamo!”
Artinya: “Anak-anak, mengapa berbuat demikian, padahal kamu tahu bahwa pohon itu adalah diriku, anjing itu adalah aku, air itu juga diriku, tanah pun aku, dan batu itu pun diriku. Berbuatlah semaumu, aku akan mengawasimu!”(Beanal, 1997: 9)
Suku Amungme mendiami wilayah hampir sepanjang Pegunungan Jayawijaya dan terbagi dalam 66 klan. Klan-klan itu terdiri dari Mom dan Magai. Perkawinan di antara mereka hanya bisa terlaksana jika kedua pasangan berasal dari dua klan yang berbeda. Jika pasangan berasal dari klan yang sama, perkawinan tidak bisa terlaksana. Jika terjadi pelanggaran, perkawinan itu akan dikutuk dan akan mendapat sanksi adat berupa hukuman mati yang disebut hanom.
Suku Amungme mendiami lembah-lembah di bagian selatan dan sedikit ke bagian utara Pegunungan Tengah Puncak Jaya. Seluruh lembah itu masuk ke dalam wilayah adat Amungme, yang disebut Amungsa. Di lembah-lembah itulah, anak-anak suku Amungme membangun kehidupan mereka sejak beratus-ratus tahun lalu. Sejatinya, pemukiman suku Amungme dibagi menjadi tiga bagian: * Ninusa. Daerah permukiman yang terletak di kawasan hulu, berada di ketinggian sekitar 3000–3500 m. Daerah itu ditutupi hutan, dan penduduk yang mendiaminya berjumlah sekitar 20 klan yang disebut ninume. * Utunsa. Daerah permukiman yang terletak di kawasan tengah, berada sekitar 1000–3000 m dpl. Daerah itu bertebing terjal dan berhutan lebat, dihuni oleh 11 klan yang disebutuntungme. * Onisa. Daerah permukiman yang terletak di kawasan hilir, berada sekitar 0–1000 m dpl. Daerah itu merupakan hutan dataran rendah dan perbukitan yang berada di ketinggian 100–1.000 m dpl. Kawasan ini dihuni oleh 25 klan yang disebut ondimangau. Masyarakat Amungme yang bermukim di lembah-lembah tersebut mendapat julukan orang Tsingame (berasal dari lembah Tsinga), Noembame (orang lembah Noemba), dan lain-lain.
Namun, saat ini permukiman suku Amungme telah bercampur dengan suku-suku lain akibat program pemukiman kembali yang dilakukan Freeport dan kebijakan pemukiman kembali oleh Departemen Transmigrasi.
Esensi Hak Ulayat
Pemukiman suku Amungme tersebar di sepuluh lembah. Lembah Tsinga, Noemba, Waa, dan Lembah Wea merupakan lembah-lembah yang didiami khusus suku Amungme. Selain itu, di Lembah Arowa dan Jaa tinggal suku Amungme yang telah berbaur dengan suku Moni. Di Lembah Beoga dan Ilaga, suku Amungme hidup berbaur dengan suku Dani, sedangkan di lembah Mapnduma dan Kupaga, warga Amungme tinggal berbaur dengan suku Nduga. Lembah-lembah tersebut dilalui sungai-sungai yang menjadi sumber kehidupan yaitu sungai Aijkwa, Kamoro, Otokwa, Mina Jerui, dan Kopi.
Wilayah hunian suku Amungme di sebelah timur dibatasi Gunung Mangsari-Ninggok (Puncak Trikora), sebelah barat dibatasi Gunung Ekaniggok (Nassao), dan Sungai Kamoro. Di sebelah utara dibatasi Puncak Nemangkawi-Niggok (Puncak Jaya) dan Pegunungan Tengah serta di selatan berbatasan dengan wilayah kesatuan hidup suku Kamoro, sampai ke Timika dan Akimuga. Suku-suku yang bertetangga dengan Amungme adalah suku Nduga dan Sempat di sebelah timur (Jigi Mugi), sedangkan di sebelah barat (Delema Tegal) berbatasan dengan Moni dan Kamoro. Di sebelah utara, wilayah hunian suku Amungme berbatasan dengan suku Dani dan Ekari.
Kehidupan sosial-ekonomi suku Amungme mulai dari berburu, meramu, bercocok tanam, sampai bertani menetap. Selama berabad-abad, mereka telah berhasil mempertahankan hidup dengan memanfaatkan kekayaan alam yang ada.
Pemimpin lokal suku Amungme dipilih berdasarkan kemampuan individual. Kepemilikan komunal atas hutan dan gunung tetap tidak berubah. Begitu pula dengan kepemilikan pribadi (keluarga) atas tanah yang digarap, tetap terus berfungsi. Tanah yang dimiliki secara pribadi dapat disewakan dengan cara bagi hasil atau memberikan kompensasi berupa harta yang dimiliki.
Praktik komunal tetap ada dan hal itu memberikan dampak negatif maupun positif dalam perjuangan suku Amungme pada masa kini, khususnya untuk mengatasi kesulitan sosial-ekonomi. Pemujaan terhadap roh leluhur tetap dipraktikkan meskipun sebagian besar dari mereka telah beragama Katolik dan Kristen. Agama Katolik dan Kristen merupakan hasil dari praktik zendingyang dibawa oleh para misionaris dari Belanda.
Hak ulayat bagi suku Amungme meliputi Pegunungan Tengah Puncak Jaya (Nemangkawi Niggok) di sebelah timur dan Puncak Trikora (Mangari Sawari Niggok) di sebelah barat. Hak ulayat itu terwujud dalam bentuk kehidupan pedusunan warisan leluhur. Dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, hak ulayat mengandung nilai ekonomi, sosial, dan juga religi.
Suku Amungme menyakralkan dua gunung yang ditutupi salju abadi. Kedua puncak ini disebut suku Amungme sebagai bugara (puncak utama). Puncak utama ini dalam mitologi suku Amungme merupakan lambang kekuatan, kebanggaan, dan kedamaian. Maka daerah itu dipandang suci dan keramat, atau merupakan wilayah spirit of life suku Amungme. Wilayah itu tidak dihuni karena merupakan daerah suci.
Freeport Menghancurkan Peradaban
PT Freeport Indonesia merupakan contoh buruk kehadiran perusahaan pertambangan yang nyaris tidak memberikan kontribusi terhadap masyarakat setempat. Setelah lebih dari 35 tahun hadir dan bergiat di atas tanah adat milik suku Amungme, kondisi kehidupan warga Amungme sama sekali tidak berubah dari saat sebelum Freeport datang. Bahkan, saat ini keberadaan suku Amungme terperosok ke dalam kondisi yang sangat memprihatinkan.
Saat ini Freeport telah memasuki relung kehidupan suku Amungme dan menghadirkan persoalan fundamental, semisal hilangnya hak ulayat, rusaknya sistem sosial-ekonomi, rusaknya lingkungan hidup dan sumber daya alam akibat perubahan ekosistem, tindak kekerasan yang dapat dikategorikan pelanggaran HAM, ancaman bahan kimia yang membahayakan, intimidasi dan stigmatisasi sebagai anggota GPK/OPM.
Persoalan-persoalan di atas telah memorak-porandakan kosmologi dan peradaban suku Amungme dan mengguncang tata sosial-budaya dan ekonom. Persoalan itu semakin diperberat dengan terjadinya pemindahan paksa permukiman warga, pemiskinan budaya dan sosial serta disintegrasi kultural.

1. Apakah perbedaan kondisi kehidupan sosial masyarakat saat ini dengan zaman dahulu?
Ada banyak, contohnya Model Pakaian dan Teknologi. Model Pakaian, zaman dahulu sebut saja saat masih tahun 1900-an, model baju yang ada masih kuno, seperti jas yang panjangnya hingga ke lutut, baju baju berenda, kaus kaus polos biasa, dan tidak berwarna – warni. Pada saat ini, model pakaian berubah setiap saat. Mulai dari model dress, rok, dan baju terlihat lebih modern. Setiap saat atau waktu model pakaian yang dipakai selalu berganti, warnanya juga beragam, mulai dari yang kalem-biasa hingga mencolok. Teknologi, ini sangat besar perbedaannya. Pada zaman dahulu, orang sangat susah untuk berkomunikasi satu sama lain, apalagi jika tinggal di tempat yang jauh, belum ada telepon ataupun handphone. Kalau mendapatkan informasi selalu telat dan belum pasti keberadaannya karena hanya dari mulut ke mulut. Tapi sekarang, jika ingin mengetahui keadaan seseorang atau mendapatkan informasi, cukup dengan menggunakan telepon ataupun handphone.

2. Bagaimanakah proses perubahan sosial budaya yang terjadi? * Perubahan yang Terjadi Secara Lambat dan Perubahan yang Terjadi Secara Cepat

Perubahan terjadi secara lambat akan mengalami rentetan perubahan yang saling berhubungan dalam jangka waktu yang cukup lama. Perkembangan perubahan ini termasuk dalam evolusi. Perubahan secara evolusi dapat diamati berdasarkan batas waktu yang telah lampau sebagai patokan atau tahap awal sampai masa sekarang yang sedang berjalan. Adapun penentuan kapan perubahan tersebut terjadi, bergantung pada orang yang bersangkutan.
Contoh: Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia yang mengubah tatanan kenegaraan dan sistem pemerintahan NKRI.

* Perubahan yang Pengaruhnya Kecil dan Perubahan yang Pengaruhnya Besar
Perubahan yang pengaruhnya kecil adalah perubahan yang mempengaruhi unsur-unsur kehidupan masyarakat. Akan tetapi, perubahan ini dianggap tidak memiliki arti yang penting dalam struktur sosial. Contohnya, perubahan mode pakaian yang tidak melanggar nilai sosial. Perubahan yang pengaruhnya besar adalah perubahan yang dapat memengaruhi lembaga-lembaga yang ada pada masyarakat.
Misalnya, perubahan sistem pemerintahan yang mempengaruhi tatanan kenegaraan suatu bangsa. * Perubahan yang Dikehendaki dan Perubahan yang Tidak Dikehendaki
Perubahan yang dikehendaki merupakan perubahan yang memang telah direncanakan sebelumnya terutama oleh pihak yang memiliki wewenang untuk mengeluarkan kebijaksanaan. Misalnya, penerapan program Keluarga Berencana untuk membentuk keluarga kecil yang sejahtera dan menurunkan angka pertumbuhan penduduk. Perubahan yang tidak dikehendaki umumnya beriringan dengan perubahan yang dikehendaki. Misalnya adanya pembuatan jalan baru yang melalui suatu desa maka sumber alam desa akan mudah dipasarkan ke kota. Dengan demikian, tingkat kesejahteraan penduduk desa akan meningkat.
Perubahan sosial terbagi atas dua wujud sebagai berikut. 1. Perubahan dalam arti kemajuan (progress) atau menguntungkan. 2. Perubahan dalam arti kemunduran (regress) yaitu yang membawa pengaruh kurang menguntungkan bagi masyarakat.
Jika perubahan sosial dapat bergerak ke arah suatu kemajuan, masyarakat akan berkembang. Sebaliknya, perubahan sosial juga dapat menyebabkan kehidupan masyarakat mengalami kemunduran. Kemunduran atau kemajuan suatu masyarakat disebabkan oleh perubahan sosial. Jika muncul inovasi baru dengan kualitas tinggi, akan terjadi proses perubahan yang sangat cepat pada masyarakat. Sebaliknya, perubahan yang terjadi di masyarakat dapat juga seperti jalan di tempat.

3. Apakah dampak perubahan sosial budaya yang dirasakan oleh masyarakat? * Dampak Positif * Kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan * Kebutuhan mudah terpenuhi * Pola pikir yang lebih maju * Memiliki Nilai dan Norma Sosial Baru * Mendorong perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi * Terciptanya lapangan kerja. * Dampak negative * Dekadensi Moral
Dekadensi moral adalah menurun atau merosotnya moral seseorang yang ditunjukkan dari perilakunya yang bertentangan dengan nilai dan norma yang berlaku dalam masyarakat. Biasanya perilaku orang tersebut merugikan dirinya sendiri dan orang lain. Beberapa contoh yang termasuk dekadensi moral adalah perilaku pergaulan bebas di kalangan remaja maupun orang tua, prostitusi, perselingkuhan dan lain-lain. * Kriminalitas
Donald R. Gressey berpendapat bahwa kriminilitas adalah suatu kondisi dan proses sosial yang menghasilkan perilaku lain. Kriminalitas merupakan tindakan yang melanggar norma hukum dan menyakitkan orang lain secara langsung. Beberapa contoh yang termasuk tindak kriminalitas antara lain korupsi, pencurian, penodongan, pemerkosaan, dan pembunuhan. * Aksi Protes dan Demonstrasi
Demonstrasi adalah gerakan protes yang dilakukan sekumpulan orang di hadapan umum. Demonstrasi biasanya dilakukan untuk menyatakan pendapat kelompok tersebut atau menentang kebijakan yang dilaksanakan suatu pihak. Aksi protes merupakan gerakan atau tindakan yang dilakukan secara perorangan atau untuk menyampaikan pernyataan tidak setuju yang oleh sebagian besar orang dilancarkan melalui kecaman yang pedas. Demonstrasi umumnya dilakukan oleh kelompok mahasiswa yang menentang kebijakan pemerintah/para buruh yang tidak puas dengan perlakuan majikannya. Namun demonstrasi juga dilakukan oleh kelompokkelompok lainnya dengan tujuan lainnya. * Konsumerisme
Konsumerisme adalah pandangan yang diikuti dengan tindakan atau perbuatan penggunaan barang dan jasa secara berlebihan. Pembelian barang-barang yang bukan kebutuhan pokok dan sifatnya hanya tersier jika dilakukan secara berlebihan dikategorikan konsumerisme * Pegeseran Nilai dan Norma Sosial * Lunturnya Budaya Nasional * Kesenjangan budaya. * Tidak berfungsinya lembaga sosial. * Mengabaikan kondisi alam * Bersikap individualistis.

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