Stephen Moore

AC1101673

HS250 World Civilizations II

Lesson 3: Assignment 3

15 August 2015

The American, French, and Haitian Revolutions: Causes and Consequences

The world in the 18th century was in turmoil. Not so much politically as it was philosophically. For centuries the power of government had rested in inheritance and tradition. The king was king by birth and divine right. People were content to accept their lot. You took what life gave you and did the best you could with what you had, but all that was about to change. Starting around the turn of the 17th century, works by philosophers such as John Locke, Voltaire, David Hume, Emmanual Kant and others began making their way into the libraries of the common people. The ideas about government and its existence were starting to be questioned. The government, the philosophers preached, existed to serve the people, not the other way around. If and when a government fails to be of benefit to its people, then said subjects have the right to abolish the current government. It was this idea, along with the teachings of all men are created equal that would eventually lead to the revolutions that would dominate the end of the 18th century and on into the 19th century. Called the "shot heard around the world" by Ralph Waldo Emerson in his poem “Concord Hymn”, a bullet fired in Concord, Massachusetts in 1775 is credited by many as the official start of the American revolutionary war. In reality, though, it had actually begun more than two decades prior with the start of the French and Indian War (1754-1763). Although the American colonists fought alongside British forces against the French colonists and their Native American allies, the eventual victory would put Great Britain’s government deep in debt. Needing money, the government of King George III saw the American colonies as a legitimate source of taxes to pay the heavy debt that had been incurred. As it was viewed in Great Britain, the colonists had been protected by the King’s soldiers, and would continue to be, therefore, they should pay their fair share. Due to the fact that they had no representatives in British government, and were not allowed to vote for any of those involved in the political decisions made on their behalf, the colonists felt that the implementation of taxes was overbearing, thus leading to the now famous battle cry “No taxation without representation.” What had been a glorious British victory, would soon lead to one of their greatest downfalls. Shortly after the war, one of the first royal edicts, “The Proclamation of 1763”, was enacted. At the conclusion of the war, King George issued an edict banning all further westward exploration and settlement. Even trading could only be conducted between the Indians and licensed traders. It was initially intended to pacify the Native Americans whose lands had already been taken, and to protect the colonists from raids that could arise from resentment from the Indians who felt they had already lost too much of their lands. The colonists, however, saw it as an encroachment on their right to claim more much-needed farmland, and as one online source puts it “they could not help but feel a strong resentment when what they perceived to be their prize was snatched away from them.” (“Proclamation of 1763”) In 1764 the Sugar Tax, also known as the American Duties Act, was enacted. This was not a new tax, but rather a renewal of a tax that was soon to expire. The original Molasses Act of 1733 imposed a 6 pence tax on a gallon of molasses. Due to various circumstances this tax had not been properly enforced, thus leading to great loss of revenue for the British government. The new tax would be decreased to 3 pence per gallon, but the enforcement of the law would be more stringent, which would in turn lead to the colonists actually paying more in taxes. Fearing this would cause them a disadvantage on the world stage, the colonists rebelled against it. These acts, and a series of others (the Currency Act of 1764, the Quartering Act of 1765, and the Tea Act of 1773) would eventually lead to all-out war between the American colonists and Great Britain. This would be a war that would be devastating to Britain, and other countries as well - a war that would forever change the landscape of the world. With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the war was over, but along with it came the inevitable spoils of war. Great Britain had lost all the American colonies, and was now heavily in debt. The British ceded all of the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the newly formed United States. The losers in this game, though, were the Indians who had previously been in control of these lands. France regained two of her former small colonies, Tobago in the West Indies and Senegal in West Africa, but in the long run the debt France incurred from the war would bring her devastation and heartache. The monarchy would soon be abolished. As stated by one website, “since the Frenchmen had helped the Americans in their revolt against a King. They were now prepared to revolt against their own king.” (“PinkMonkey Online”) Only six years after the American Revolution ended, the French Revolution would begin. For centuries France had basked in tradition. The king was king by divine right, the three estates system consisting of the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate) was fixed, and a tax code whereby the lower class paid 100% of the burden was unchangeable. France was a vibrant country, but the financial crises caused by France’s participation in the American Revolution, along with a serious crop shortage caused King Louis XVI to do something that hadn’t been done in 175 years – convene the Estates General. Traditionally the representatives from each of the three estates would meet and vote separately. The members of the Third Estate, who only had half of the vote, knowing that they could easily be outvoted, demanded that all three estates meet together. When their demands were not met, they assembled at a tennis court across the street vowing to stand firm until a constitution had been written. Only a handful of clergymen and nobles joined them, but it was enough to make the king nervous. King Louis XVI finally allowed them to meet, but unbeknownst to those in attendance, the king had secretly called in loyal soldiers to help put down the rebellion. The arrival of the soldiers caused a panic to ensue. Crowds began to attack arsenals in order to arm themselves against the soldiers. Even the great medieval fortress, Bastille, couldn’t stand up to the frenzy. By the time it was over, Bastille had been torn stone from stone, the weaponry seized, the prisoners freed, and the commandant murdered. Fearing this unfettered power of the people, the king relented and agreed to allow the power of government to be shared between the king and the National Assembly. After they abolished all class privilege, King Louis, deeming this as too radical, once again called in the troops. This would be the last straw. On October 5, between six and seven thousand women ransacked an armory, looting several small cannon and small arms, before marching on to the Palace of Versailles where they demanded that the king and his family return to Paris. The march from Paris had lasted about 6 hours, and during that time the crowd had been whipped into such a frenzy that by the time they reached the palace doors, they had nothing but murder on their minds. Several of the palace guards were overpowered trying to protect the royal family, with at least a couple of them being beheaded and their heads raised on pikes. Amazingly the king, the queen, and their two children were able to barricade themselves in a bedroom where they were protected from the crowd. By morning the crowd had simmered down considerably, and even escorted the royal family back to Paris the next morning. They would remain virtual prisoners in the Tuileries for the next 2 years while the new constitution was being written. Finally, in June of 1791 the king and his family escaped intending to flee to Varennes. While stopping at an Inn for supper, the king was recognized, arrested, and taken back to Paris where he was eventually tried for treason, and executed. His wife’s execution would follow just a few months later. In addition to the absolute monarchy being abolished in favor of a constitutional monarchy, several other changes occurred in France. Lands formerly used by the Catholic Church for nonreligious purposes were confiscated, and the clergy became paid members of the government. In return they would have to swear allegiance to the state, not the church. While many took the oath, many others refused to swear allegiance to a government founded on rebellion. The church in effect, had now been split into two factions. With these changes also came the abolishment of privileges for the nobility and clergy. Their tax-exempt status was taken away and the church’s ability to extract tithes from the people was rescinded. Due to the influence of the writings of various philosophers at the time, the idea of the legitimacy of “three estates” was questioned and eventually abolished. Just 2 years after the start of the French Revolution, a new revolution began. This time, ironically, in a French colony, Saint-Domingue (present day Haiti). Whereas the American and French Revolutions had been rebellions against a monarchy that was withdrawn from its subjects and yet had full control over them, the Haitian Revolution pitted black slaves against their owners. In the 18th century, Saint-Domingue had become France’s most profitable colony due to its slave-produced crops such as cotton, coffee, and sugar. The colony was ruled by the plantation owners who benefited the most from the island’s economic success. The poorer white settlers, called petit blancs, were those who performed the menial tasks, such as working as shopkeepers and teachers. Although poor, a few of them also owned slaves. The blacks on the island were divided into three groups: slaves, freed slaves, and runaway slaves (known as maroons). Due to the implementation of steep tariffs on items imported from France, the forbiddance of trade with any nation other than France, and the lack of representation in the French government, many of the plantation owners began clamoring for independence. Although this reflected the same beginnings of the American Revolution, it would not play out the same way. In Haiti, there were only about 40,000 whites compared to 500,000 blacks. Strength in numbers would turn the tide of the Haitian Revolution. As stated on the website Black Past, “Led by former slave Toussaint l’Overture, the enslaved would act first, rebelling against the planters on August 21, 1791.” (“Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)”) A year later they would control a third of the island. For the next 8 years l’Overture’s forces would fight battle after battle against soldiers from multiple countries: France, Spain, and England. After securing victory in Haiti, l’Overture led his troops to Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic) where he abolished slavery and declared himself Governor-General for life. By this time the French Revolution had ended, and Napolean Bonaparte was now in charge. With his emergence France was now almost a dictatorship. Not given to the idea of freedom for anybody, much less former slaves, Bonaparte dispatched his brother-in-law, General Charles Leclerc, along with 43,000 French troops to Saint-Domingue. The slaves were defeated and l’Overture was captured and taken back to France where he would later die in prison. This would not be the end. In 1803, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, also a former slave, would lead the slaves to victory at the Battle of Vertieres. Dessalines declared Saint-Domingue’s independence renaming it Haiti, Arawak for mountainous. Haiti would become the second nation (behind the United States) in the western hemisphere to gain independence, but it would take nearly twenty years before any other nation would recognize it. Haiti would suffer somewhat economically over the next few years. Fearing a similar uprising of slaves at home, the United States government placed an embargo on Haiti and refused to recognize its independence. France would be the first to recognize Haiti as an independent country, but only after they agreed to pay 60 million francs in reparation to former plantation owners. A slave revolt wasn’t the only thing that the United States feared; it was something much worse. In 1804 Dessalines ordered that all remaining whites be eradicated. From early February to late March, Dessalines went from city to city across Haiti to make sure his orders were carried out. Although many whites were smuggled off the island, roughly 4,000 men, women, and children were wantonly slaughtered. Dessalines' secretary Boisrond-Tonnerre is quoted on Wikipedia as saying, "For our declaration of independence, we should have the skin of a white man for parchment, his skull for an inkwell, his blood for ink, and a bayonet for a pen!" (“1804 Haiti Massacre”) In the short term, these actions would be detrimental to the absolution of slavery. In the U.S., many slave owners in the south used these events to support their opposition to abolition. They feared not only a slave revolt, but also a massacre of the southern whites by slaves. Julius writes that “as abolitionists loudly proclaimed that "All men are created equal" echoes of armed slave insurrections and racial genocide sounded in Southern ears.” (unk) In the long term though, it would lead to the eventual end of slavery. The Haitian Revolution would cause, or at least influence slave revolts in Grenada, Jamaica, South America, and even in the United States. Change was slow, but it did come. In 1807 the international sale of slaves was made a felony in the U. S. The British began arresting slave traders off the coast of Africa in that same year. Slavery was abolished in Mexico in 1810, and Spain declared it illegal the following year. When the last revolution had come to a close, the world had become a different place. New nations had been formed, previously enslaved peoples had been freed, and whole countries had been transformed. By the time the smoke finally cleared, whole countries were in shambles and in debt, and hundreds of thousands of people of all races, genders, and age lay dead. In retrospect we must ask ourselves - was it worth the price?

Works Cited

“Proclamation of 1763.” Wikipedia. 2014. 15 August 2015 < http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/related/proc63.htm> “PinkMonkey Online Study Guide-World History.” Pink Monkey. 17 March 2005. 15 August 2015 < http://pinkmonkey.com/studyguides/subjects/worldhis/chap6/w0606501.asp>

“Haitian Revolution (1791-1804).” Black Past. 2015. 15 August 2015< http://www.blackpast.org/gah/haitian-revolution-1791-1804>

“1804 Haiti Massacre.” Wikipedia. 11 August 2015. 15 August 2015< https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1804_Haiti_massacre> Julius, Kevin C. (2004). The Abolitionist Decade, 1829-1838: A Year-by-Year History of Early Events in the Antislavery Movement. MacFarland and Company