...The cognitive approach to human and comparative psychology rests on two main assumptions: 1) there are cognitive representations and processes that act on those representations 2) we can discover these representations and processes, albeit indirectly (Willingham, 2007). This approach offers a middle ground between B.F. Skinner’s cut-and-dry input—output relations and C.L. Hull’s hypothetical constructs and intervening variables. In the first case, there is no room for intermediary cognitive processes between stimulus and response, outside the realm of simple associative learning. In the second case, there is lacking an explicit scientific means by which to objectively observe the theoretical cognitive mechanisms in question. However, E. C. Tolman was one of the first psychologists to suggest that intermediary cognitive processes could be deduced through the results of scientifically rigorous experimentation (Zentall, 2002). It is on this very basic proposition, that theoretical cognitive processes can be inferred by observing behavior, which most informs the developmental milestones in the formation of the cognitive perspective as a branch of psychology. Development of Cognitive Psychology The development of the cognitive approach as a mainstream psychological perspective is marked by four major milestones: 1) the shortfalls of the behaviorist perspective of psychology 2) the ability for abstract constructs to account for the aforementioned shortfalls 3) the bridging of abstract...
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...Cognitive Psychology Definition Paper PSY 360 Cognitive Psychology Definition The cognitive approach to human and comparative psychology supports two major projections: 1) there are cognitive representations and processes that act on those representations (Willingham, 2007). 2) we can discover these representations and processes, albeit indirectly (Willingham, 2007). This approach proposes a consensus amongst B.F. Skinner’s cut-and-dry input²output relations and C.L. Hull’s hypothetical constructs and intervening variables. In the first case, there is limited access for intermediary cognitive processes among stimulus and response, independent from the domain of effortless associative learning. In the second case, there is lacking a definite scientific means by which to impartially observe the theoretical cognitive mechanisms at hand. Nonetheless, E. C. Tolman was one of the first psychologists to insinuate that intermediary cognitive processes could be determined through the results of scientifically meticulous experimentation. It is on this extremely complex proposal, that theoretical cognitive processes can be inferred by observing behavior, which most informs the developmental milestones in the formation of the cognitive perspective as a branch of psychology. Cognitive Psychology relates to developments, both past and present, in the investigation of the memory process, verbal communication, discernment, the ability to...
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...QUESTIONS 1. In terms of basic research and applied research how would you categorize Sam’s study? Why? This study can be categorized as Applied research, as this entire research is focusing on to identifying the effect of personality and emotional reactivity on the financial performance of day traders. So it tries find a solution for a particular problem. 2. Purposiveness, testability, and objectivity are three hallmarks of scientific research. Use Sam’s study as an example to discuss these hallmarks. Purposiveness: Any scientific research should have a definite and specific purpose. Without a purpose, a search will be a meaning less exercise. It is like sailing in the waters without having a destination. The purpose here is to identify what is the effect of personality and emotional reactivity on the financial performance of day traders. Testability: Scientific research lends itself to testing logically developed hypothesis to see whether or not the data support the educational conjectures or hypothesis that are developed after a careful study of problem situation. Hypothesis here used are: H1: Extreme (positive and negative) emotional responses to market events have a negative effect on the trading performance of investors. H2: Successful traders tend to be emotionally stable introverts who are open to new experiences. Objectivity: The conclusion drawn through the implementation of the results of data analysis should be objective. That is they should...
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...by the rise of technology and the secularisation of religion. Thus they may conclude that the only way in which they can be studied is through observations and experiments, such as lab experiments; which take place in controlled factors with controlled factors, as Popper suggests, science involves the hypothetico-deductive method to test through research. Also positivists argue that it should be a science when studying social facts. Arguably, Sociology wouldn’t want to be seen as a science, as the association with science connotes that we are dealing with emotionless electrons and atoms, as opposed to people with feelings and emotions. Thus some would disagree with the idea that objectivity that is associated with studying people within society, which science influences, as we are people and we cannot disconnect ourselves from society. For example, it is not simple to disconnect yourself when studying a rape or murder case. Positivism is the view that logic, methods and procedures of natural science can be applied to the study of society with little modification, and that human behaviour is a response to external forces. They believe by keeping a modernist traditional approach to sociology, it was seen as a means to solving social problems, improving the quality of human lives and making it relatively easier to understand and prove...
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...In the early days, psychology was known as the science of the mind, then shifted focus to behaviour in the 1950s, and has since swung back to the mind, but, however chequered its history may have been, it has remained predominantly shaded by the science umbrella. As Searle (1999) points out “academic psychology has placed great importance on the use of scientific approaches”, which has resulted in an emphasis on quantitative research methods, centred on collection of numerical data and statistical analysis (the empirical approach). However, since the 1960s there has been increasing criticism of such reliance on the quantitative data-collection characteristics of the scientific method, which has developed over subsequent decades into a strong shift towards more qualitative approaches. This has led to the somewhat inevitable, yet ultimately unhelpful, divide between competing methods: quantitative versus qualitative. According to Bauer, et al (2000), quantitative research deals with numbers, makes use of statistical models to explain the data and is considered ‘hard’ research, whereas qualitative research avoids numbers, involves interpretation of social realities and is considered ‘soft research. Both approaches, however, have their strengths and weaknesses. The strengths of quantitative research, as outlined by Burns (2000), includes precision and control – precision is achieved through quantitative and reliable measurement, control through sampling and design. Further,...
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...PROPOSED TOPIC: Examining the influence of Brand Image on consumer buying behaviour. The Case of Apple I-PHONE in the UK. INTRODUCTION OF TOPIC: Nowadays firms in all segments are probing for a new foundation of sustaining competitive advantage because the competition in the marketplace is getting more rigorous. However brand image has stand as one of the powerful tool of gaining comparative advantage. It is certain that firms with powerful brand image make a momentous progress in the marketplace. A strong brand will project a picture of superiority of a firm’s product or service. Apple Inc is an American multinational corporation that market and design personal computers, electronics and computer software. Apple Inc was founded in April 1976 in Cupertino California by the late Steve Jobs. Apple Inc is the largest technology company in the word by profit and revenue. Apple Inc has built a reputation as a consistent and trustworthy electronic company. Apple aspires to become the world leader in electronics, computer software and personal computer. RATIONALE FOR THE TOPIC: The rationale for my topic holds on the fact that brand is becoming the tool for absolute advantage for business in the twenty-first century. It is a challenge for organisation to survive in the constant and fierce battle of brands in the wallets, heart and mind of consumers. Though this study was premeditated for a course work, it will go beyond the purpose, the result of this study will assist existing...
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...CHILD DEVELOPMENT Principles & Perspectives © 2005 Joan Littlefield Cook Greg Cook 0-205-40028-0 Exam Copy ISBN 0-205-31411-2 Bookstore ISBN Visit www.ablongman.com/replocator to contact your local Allyn & Bacon/Longman representative. s a m p l e c h a p t e r The pages of this Sample Chapter may have slight variations in final published form. Allyn & Bacon 75 Arlington St., Suite 300 Boston, MA 02116 www.ablongman.com Cognitive Development Piagetian and Sociocultural Views CHAPTER PREVIEW Piaget’s Constructivist View of Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s Sociocultural View of Cognitive Development • Piaget as a Child Prodigy • Constructivism and Interaction with the Environment Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development • Vygotsky’s Background: The Sociocultural Context for a New Theory • The Role of Speech and Language • Mediation: With a Little Help from Your Friends • The Zone of Proximal Development • Scaffolding: Support during Learning Recent Sociocultural Views of Cognitive Development • Stage 1: Sensorimotor Thought (Birth to 2 Years) • Stage 2: Preoperational Thought (2 to 7 Years) • Stage 3: Concrete Operational Thought (7 to 11 Years) • Stage 4: Formal Operational Thought (Approximately Age 12 and Above) • Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory • Piaget’s Legacy • Situated Cognition • Guided Participation • Thinking as Socially Shared Cognition: Two Heads Are Better than One “Maria wants to pick the best school for her sons, so she...
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...Are the natural sciences more reliable sources of knowledge than social sciences? To be able to determine the reliability of knowledge within the sciences, an understanding of what is meant when referring to knowledge is required as well as an understanding of how this knowledge is created. Knowledge has been defined in various ways, depending upon the context is to be used in. As Çakir (2012, p.665) defines it: “Knowledge is the communication between individuals who share decisions and actions”. When relating to the creation of “knowledge” within the sciences, this is the most fitting definition due to the method of study and peer review that allows information to be taken as truthful. This essay will look at some of the differences between the two branches of science, the different ways in which natural and social science discover new information through experimentation, the natural evolution of the sciences, and how dissension among members of the social sciences holds them back from creating reliable knowledge. The natural sciences have been the subject of study for over six hundred years, starting in the fourteenth century and progressing steadily throughout the years. The natural sciences set the foundations for inquiry and have previously gone through the trials and errors that the social sciences, having only been the subject of study for around two hundred and forty years, are currently going through. While the history of the of social sciences has been noted to have...
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...doing, it would not be called research, would it?” Albert Einstein Mixed methods research is fast becoming recognised as a third major research approach or paradigm alongside qualitative and quantitative research. Its philosophy is pragmatic, and in general terms it is an approach which attempts to acknowledge several perspectives, viewpoints and angles. Research methods are a fundamental component of the social sciences which facilitate the understanding of human behaviour. Grinnell (1993, as cited in Kumar, 2005, p.95) defines research as being a “careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles”. Grinnell also adds that research is a structured inquiry which employs scientific methodology for problem solving and creating new knowledge. This paper will critically discuss the nature and design of mixed methods research. The essay begins by defining mixed methods before giving an outline of the quantitative and qualitative approaches followed by a discussion on the debate surrounding the multi-strategy approach. Multi-strategy research attempts to combine methods from the positivist- quantitative and the interpretive- qualitative paradigms. Both numerical data, a result of quantitative enquiry and narrative data, a result of qualitative enquiry are collected and analysed with...
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...Chapter 1 What is social psychology? LEARNING OUTCOMES When you have finished studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1 Outline the main differences between experimental and critical approaches to social psychology. 2 Describe the three main ‘metaphysical battles’ between them. 3 Trace the origins of social psychology through the work of William McDougall and William James, and the contributions made by Völkerpsychologie and crowd psychology. 4 Describe the two contrasting images of ‘the person’ in social psychology. 5 Identify the roots of and describe the historical development of both experimental and critical social psychology. 6 Describe the main elements of Modernism and Postmodernism, and how these relate to contemporary social psychology. 7 Explain how these two approaches are different, and why they cannot be integrated. Introduction On a March night in 1964, Kitty Genovese was attacked by a maniac as she came home from work at 3 A.M. Thirty-eight of her Kew Gardens neighbors came to their windows when she cried out in terror – but no one came to her assistance. Even though the attack, which resulted in her death, lasted more than half an hour, no one even so much as called the police. . . . The thirty-eight witnesses to Kitty 3 4 FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES Genovese’s murder did not merely look at the scene once and then ignore it. Instead they continued to stare out, fascinated, distressed, unwilling to act but unable...
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...Comprehensive Analysis Case Study Cheryl M. Todd PSY7220 Capella University Abstract This comprehensive case analysis will follow Gwen Cohen-Green through the following three stages of development: early childhood, middle childhood, and early adolescence. Within each of the three stages I will identify Gwen’s social and emotional development, theories pertaining to her development, validation, and predominate factors. A complete analysis and synthesis will support the findings, and recommendations will be given to support her. Table of Contents Introduction Case Study: Early Childhood Case Study: Middle Childhood Cased Study: Early Adolescence Analysis and Synthesis Recommendations Conclusion References 1 1-5 5-10 10-15 15-16 16-17 17 18-20 Comprehensive Analysis Case Study Introduction This study will identify the child I have chosen for my case study project and follow her through each of the following stages: early childhood, middle childhood and early adolescence. Secondly, the study will include an analysis and synthesis of developmental domains and of environmental and influential factors and finally, the study will make recommendations for optimal development. Early Childhood: Case Study Gwen Cohen-Green is an only child that lives with both her mom and dad in a suburban setting. Mom and dad both work long hours with mom being the primary parent to attend conferences as well as being the disciplinarian. Gwen’s parents are...
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...Practice Essays: Exam 3 What are the four identity statuses in Marcia’s theory? Define each of the four statuses using the component of crisis and commitment. * Identity achievement Having already explored alternatives, identity-achieved individuals are committed to a clearly formulated set of self chosen values and goals. They feel a sense of psychological well-being, of sameness through time, and of knowing where they are going. When asked how willing she would be to give up going into her chosen occupation if something better came along, Darla responded, “Well, I might, but I doubt it. I’ve thought long and hard about law as a career. I’m pretty certain it’s for me.” * Identity moratorium Moratorium means “delay or holding pattern.” These individuals have not yet made definite commitments. They are in the process of exploring—gathering information and trying out activities, with the desire to find values and goals to guide their lives. When asked whether he had ever had doubts about his religious beliefs, Ramón said, “Yes, I guess I’m going through that right now. I just don’t see how there can be a God and yet so much evil in the world.” * Identity foreclosure Identity-foreclosed individuals have committed themselves to values and goals without exploring alternatives. They accept a ready-made identity chosen for them by authority figures—usually parents but sometimes teachers, religious leaders, or romantic partners. When asked if she had ever reconsidered...
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...MBA : UNIT1 Teaching Notes : 1. Definition of Research 2. Business Research 3. Features of a Good Research Study 4. Areas of Business Research 5. How to start Business Research 6. Business Research Analysis : Basic Steps 7. Business Research Problem 8. Primary Business Information 9. Research Proposal ( also in Unit2) 10. Research Methods versus Methodology 11. Types of Research 12. Functions of Business Research 13. Relevance of Business Research to Managers 14. Need to perform Business Research 15. Managerial Effectiveness and Research 16. Management Consultant 17. The Building Blocks of Science in Research 18. Induction & Deduction in Business Research 19. The Case Study as a Research Method 20. Case Study to Assess Business Situations 21. Difference between the case method and a case study? 22. Business Research Topics 23. Business Research in the 21st Century Definition of Research Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch...
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...Journal, February 2007 Gaffikin: Accounting Research and Theory: the age of neo-empiricism. Vol. 1, No.1.pp. 1-19. Accounting Research and Theory: The age of neo-empiricism Michael Gaffikin, School of Accounting & Finance, University of Wollongong ABSTRACT The theorising in accounting prior to 1970 was rejected as not providing sufficiently general theories. Informed by theories in economics and finance (and other disciplines such as psychology) and with the aid of computers, attempts to theorise accounting took a new direction. Large data collection and analysis emphasized a purportedly more systematic empirical approach to developing theory. Key words: accounting; neo-empiricism; capital markets research; behavioural finance; efficient markets hypothesis; positive accounting theory INTRODUCTION Around 1970 there was a dramatic change in the approach to accounting research. Several reasons have been suggested for this change in methodological direction by those reviewing the development of accounting thought. To many, a major distinction is a change in direction away from attempts to prescribe a theory of accounting to developing theory from a description of extant practices. To advocates of the latter, previous attempts to develop a theory of accounting were futile as there could never be agreement over many of the inputs into a theory such as the postulates, principles but most specifically the assumptions. Although a very inaccurate description the two approaches...
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...Chapter 1 Introduction to Educational Research LEARNING OBJECTIVES To be able to Explain the importance of educational research. List at least five areas of educational research. Explain the difference between basic and applied research. Describe evaluation research, action research, and critical theory research. Discuss the different sources of knowledge. Visit the study site for an interactive concept map. Explain the scientific approach to knowledge generation. Explain how to determine the quality of a theory or explanation. List the five objectives of educational research and provide an example of each. 2 RESEARCH IN REAL LIFE Research Aids Decision Making In June 2002, New York Governor George Pataki signed a state law giving Mayor Michael Bloomberg control of New York City’s public school system. Most observers agree that this is a school system desperately in need of reform. The 1,100 schools within this system educate 1.1 million kids. However, using the word educate would seem to be somewhat of a misnomer because only about half of the city’s public school students finish high school in 4 years. Only 40 percent of third- through eighth-grade students score at an acceptable level in reading, and only 34 percent do so in math. About 100 of the 1,100 schools are classified by the state as failing, and another 300 are almost as bad. Clearly, something needs to be done. While campaigning for mayor, Michael Bloomberg had many ideas, one...
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