...Candidates should be able to: (a) explain that enzymes are globular proteins that catalyse metabolic reactions; (b) explain the mode of action of enzymes in terms of an active site, enzyme/substrate complex, lowering of activation energy and enzyme specificity; (c) [PA] follow the progress of an enzyme-catalysed reaction by measuring rates of formation of products (for example, using catalase) or rates of disappearance of substrate (for example, using amylase); (d) [PA] investigate and explain the effects of temperature, pH, enzyme concentration and substrate concentration on the rate of enzymecatalysed reactions; (e) explain the effects of competitive and non-competitive inhibitors on the rate of enzyme activity; (f) use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems. Enzymes are globular protein which act as catalysts • Enzymes are protein molecules defined as biological catalysts which speed up a chemical reaction and remain unchanged at the end of reaction. • Enzyme names end in –ase E.g. amylase, ATPase • Enzyme are globular proteins. Enzymes are globular protein which act as catalysts • Enzyme molecules are coiled into a precise threedimensional shape, which hydrophilic R groups (side-chains) on the outside of the molecule ensuring that they are soluble. Enzymes are globular protein which act as catalysts • Enzyme molecules have active site. • The active site of an enzyme is a region, usually a cleft or depression which substrate...
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...Trace of the Bolus MOUTH The mouth, also referred to as the oral or buccal cavity, is formed by the cheeks, hard and soft palates, and tongue. Forming the lateral walls of the oral cavity are the cheeks—muscular structures covered externally by skin and internally by non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The anterior portions of the cheeks end at the lips. The lips or labia are fleshly folds surrounding the opening of the mouth. They are covered externally by skin and internally by a mucous membrane. There is a transition zone where the two kinds of covering tissue meet. This portion of the lips is non-keratinized, and the color of the blood in the underlying blood vessels is visible through the transparent surface layer. The inner surface of each lip is attached to its corresponding gum by a midline fold or mucous membrane called the labial frenulum. The orbicularis oris muscle and connective tissue lie between the skin and the mucous membrane of the oral cavity. During chewing, contraction of the buccinators muscles in the cheeks and orbicularis oris muscle in the lips helps keep food between the upper and lower teeth. These muscles also assist in speech. The vestibule of the oral cavity is a space bounded externally by the cheeks and lips and internally by the gums and teeth. The oral cavity proper is a space that extends from the gums and teeth to the fauces, the opening between the oral cavity and the pharynx or throat. The hard palate—the anterior...
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...Protein digestion Protein metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of proteins and amino acids, and the breakdown of proteins (and other large molecules, too) by catabolism.Dietary proteins are first broken down to individual amino acids by various enzymes and hydrochloric acid present in the gastro-intestinal tract.[1] These amino acids are further broken down to α-keto acids which can be recycled in the body for generation of energy, and production of glucose or fat or other amino acids. This break-down of amino acids to α-keto acids occurs in the liver by a process known as transamination Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides. Protein metabolism is dependent on a vast number of endogenous mediators. These mediators define the balance between anabolic and catabolic processes. Insulin is the major anabolic hormone and also has an important role in amino acid and protein homeostasis. During injury and...
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...Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to Identify the anatomical components of the digestive system as well as their functions Discuss neural control of the digestive system Compare and contrast mechanical and chemical digestion Discuss the effects of again and disease on the digestive system The GI tract is long tube that is open at both ends for the transit of food during processing Named portions of the tube include the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum Accessory structures are not part of the GI tract, but they do contribute to food processing Accessory structures include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas Digestive Processes There are 6 basic processes involved in digestion The Digestive System The GI tract, and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas, are responsible for facilitating the body’s metabolic processes. Catabolism: Larger molecules are broken into smaller molecules (mouth, stomach, duodenum). In the GI tract, this is called digestion and can occur by either mechanical or chemical means. Anabolism: Smaller molecules are used as building blocks for larger molecules (liver). The Digestive System Mechanical digestion includes all movements that facilitate catabolic processes: Mastication Swallowing Mixing Increase contact of food with digestive chemicals Peristalsis Movement of muscles within the GI tract that facilitates movement of food The Digestive...
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...VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HOCHIMINH CITY INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY QUALITY OF BIOMASS OF FLOC-ASSOCIATED BACTERIA ISOLATED FROM SHRIMP PONDS A thesis submitted to the School of Biotechnology, International University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of B.S.c in Biotechnology STUDENT NAME: LE BAO – BTIU09080 SUPERVISOR: DR. HOANG TUNG Contents Acknowledgement ii Abstract 1 1. Introduction 2 2. Material and methods 5 3.1 Bacteria strain and medium 5 3.2 Inoculum preparation 5 3.3 Batch cultivations 5 3.4 Freeze-drying process 5 3.5 Analytical methods 6 3.6 Statistical analyses 8 3. Results 9 4.7 Bacterial density in 3-L batch fermentation 9 4.8 Dry cell weight 9 4.9 Protein content 10 4.10 Lipid content 10 4.11 Protein digestibility 11 4. Discussion 12 5.12 Biomass production 12 5.13 Protein and lipid content 12 5.14 Protein digestibility 13 5. Conclusion 15 Reference iii Appendix ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENT At first, I would like to express the deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Dr. Hoang Tung, who always gave the valuable instructions, and encouraged me to achieve the best from my working during the research time. I also thank Mr. Phan Cong Hoang for helpful discussions during the preparation of this thesis report and for providing the bacterial strains. In addition, I owe...
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...P4- Explain the physiology of two named body systems in relation to energy metabolism in the body. M1- Discuss the role of energy in the body. The Conservation of energy The first law of thermodynamics, is sometimes known as the conservation of energy, this states that: ‘Energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed’. (Moonie, 2010) The second form may not be of use or be capable of being measured. Forms of energy within the body Through the body there are five different forms of energy which exists. These are chemical, kinetic, electrical, elastic and thermal .Energy can be found in several forms and chemical energy is the most common. The energy that is in the chemical bond unites atoms or molecules with each other. When a new bond is made between two atoms, energy is needed for its formation and this is usually in the form of heat, light an electrical energy could be used. If the bond is broken and the atoms are released, the energy in the bond is released. Elastic energy is found with the arteries. The middle layer of the tissue (tunica media) which is within the artery wall lining has elastic tissues in. The elastic tissue lets the artery walls to be able to stretch and recoil which helps prevents damage from the high pressure blood flowing through them. By allowing the stretch of the artery this is causing the elastic energy. This kind of energy is known as the ‘potential energy’. Thermal energy is one...
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...questionbase.50megs.com AS-Level Revision Notes AS Biology – Revision Notes Unit 1 – Core Principles Biochemistry 1. Carbohydrates have the general formula (CH2O)x. 2. The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, e.g. glucose (C 6H12O6), and are monomers. 3. Monosaccharides can join together to form disaccharides in a condensation reaction, forming a glycosidic bond. This can be broken by hydrolysis: 4. Polysaccharides are formed from multiple glycosidic bonds, and include starch, glycogen and cellulose. 5. 1-4 glycosidic bonds create straight chains, whereas side chains are produced from 1-6 bonds. 6. Cellulose is fibrous, with β 1-4 linkages, and is used in cell walls. Glycogen and starch are both coiled, with α 1-4 linkages, and 1-6 side chains, and are used for storage. 7. Amino acids are the monomers of proteins – they have an amino group at one end, and a carboxylic acid group at the other. 8. The ‘R’ group distinguishes one amino acid from another – there are about 20 in total; those that are needed in the diet are called essential amino acids. 9. Some amino acids can be synthesised by transamination. 10. Amino acids bond like monosaccharides, creating peptide bonds. 11. Fibrous proteins, e.g. collagen and keratin, have long, straight, polypeptide chains. 12. Globular proteins, e.g. gels and enzymes, have a roughly rounded shape. 13. Proteins have four different structures: a. The primary structure is the basic sequence of amino acids. b....
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...INTRODUCTION Microorganisms are used extensively to provide a vast range of products and services. They have proved to be particularly useful because of the ease of their mass cultivation, speed of growth, use of cheap substrates (which in many cases are wastes) and the diversity of potential products. Their ability to readily undergo genetic manipulation has also opened up almost limitless further possibilities for new products and services from the fermentation industries (Trevor Palmor, 2004). Microorganisms are a large and disease group that exist as its single cell or cell cultures. These include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and infectious agents at the borderline of life. Microbes are present most abundantly in soil, atmosphere and water plays a important role in the biochemical agent for the conversion of complex organic compounds into simple organic compounds (Glazer and Nikaido, 1995). Microorganisms are closely associated with health and welfare of human beings. Some Microorganisms are beneficial and others are detrimental. For example, Microorganisms are involved in the making of yoghurt, cheese and wine, in the production of Penicillin, interferons and alcohol, and the processing of industrial and domestic wastes. Microorganisms can cause disease, spoil food and deteriorate materials like iron, pipes, glass lenses and wood pilings (Glazer and Nikaido, 1995). Most of these Microorganisms irrespective of their origins, were subsequently modified by conventional...
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...Substances found in plant foods that are not essential nutrients but may have health-promoting properties are phytochemicals 2 Which is NOT an example of moderation in your diet and lifestyle? Going back for seconds on all dinner items, rather than just the item you like best 3 All of the following are macronutrients except vitamins 4 All of the following are macronutrients lipids carbohydrates protein 5 Which of the following statements about proteins is false? Proteins are made of amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. 6 following statements about proteins are true Proteins differ based on the combinations of amino acids used in each type of protein. Proteins are composed of amino acids. Dietary protein from animal sources better matches the amino acid needs of humans compared to dietary protein derived from plants sources. 7 If you know you are going to order dessert at dinner tonight, which of these choices would illustrate the concept of balancing your choices? Choosing a salad with fat-free salad dressing for lunch 8 With the exception of _______, all the classes of nutrients are involved in forming and maintaining the body’s structure. vitamins 9 Gram per gram, ______ provide the most kcalories. lipids 10 A deficient intake of _______ is known to produce osteoporosis. calcium 11 Some nutrient deficiencies occur quickly, whereas others take more time to develop. Which of the following nutrient deficiencies are listed in the order...
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...Food industry. 2. Dairy industry. 3. Cosmetic industry. 4. Detergent. 5. Tanning industry. By analysing current potent and catalytic activity of the lipase enzyme, these are considered to be of great use in the class of industrial enzymes. After proteases and amylases which have a great use in industry, the lipases are regarded to have the third volume sales up, up to billions of dollars, showing their application flexibility and potent. They are also most chosen biocatalysts due to their unique characteristics such as chemo-, region- and enantioselectivities. These characteristics allow us to produce drugs, agroproducts and fine chemicals. STRUCTURE The lipases are found in nature. There are many types of lipases. In common most of the lipases are having an alpha or beta hydrolase folding addition to it they also have chymotrypsin like catalytic activity. PHYSIOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION: These lipase enzymes have a widespread biological activity in biological processes from usual metabolism of dietary triglycerides...
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...Introduction Brewing beer is really a very simple process, a unique mix of art and science that consists of a number of key steps. Brewing begins with malted barley that is milled and mixed with hot water to form a mash. During mashing, the malt starches are converted to sugars. The sugar rich water is then strained through the bottom of the mash and is now called wort. The wort then goes to the brew kettle where it is brought to a boil. During this stage, hops are added at different times during the boil for either bitterness or aroma. The wort is then cooled and aerated, and brewers' yeast is added for fermentation. The yeast produces alcohol and carbon dioxide and other byproducts from the sweet wort. After fermentation the "green beer" undergoes maturation. The last step in the brewing process is filtration, and then carbonation. Next the beer is moved to a holding tank where it stays until it is bottled or kegged. For a more detailed description of the brewing process click "Continue." Barley Malt Barley malt is to beer as grapes are to wine. It is ideally suited to brewing for many reasons. Malted barley has a high complement of enzymes for converting its starch supply into simple sugars and contains protein, which is needed for yeast nutrition. Of course, one important element is its flavor. There are two types of barley: six-row and two-row. [pic] Pale Ale Malt Barley Malt Six-row Barley Malt Generally, six-row barley has a higher enzyme content...
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...AQA GCSE Biology – Unit 2 summary notes AQA GCSE Biology Summary Notes For Unit B2 Exam Tuesday th May 13 2014 Page 1 AQA GCSE Biology – Unit 2 summary notes B2.1 Cells and Cell Structures Summary All living things are made up of cells. The structures of different types of cells are related to their functions. To get into or out of cells, dissolved substances have to cross the cell membranes. Cells Cells are the smallest unit of life. All living things are made of cells. Most human cells, like most other animal cells, have the following parts: o nucleus o cytoplasm o cell membrane o mitochondria o ribosomes Plant and algal cells also have: o cell wall o chloroplasts o permanent vacuole What do these structures do? Nucleus – controls the activities of the cell. Cytoplasm – where most of the chemical reactions take place. Cell membrane - controls the passage of substances in and out of the cell. Mitochondria - where most energy is released in respiration. Page 2 AQA GCSE Biology – Unit 2 summary notes Ribosomes - where protein synthesis occurs. Cell wall – made of cellulose and strengthens plant cells. Chloroplasts - absorb light energy to make food in plant cells. Permanent vacuole - filled with cell sap in plant cells. Yeast Yeast is a single-celled organism. The cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall. Bacteria Bacterium is a single-celled organism. A bacterial cell consists of cytoplasm and a membrane...
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...AS Biology Unit 1 page 1 AQA AS Biology Unit 1 Contents Specification Biological Molecules Chemical bonds Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Biochemical Tests Enzymes Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells Cell Fractionation Microscopy The Cell Membrane Movement across Cell Membranes Exchange The Gas Exchange System Lung Diseases The Heart Coronary Heart Disease The Digestive System Cholera Lifestyle and Disease Defence against Disease Immunisation Monoclonal Antibodies 1 – Mathematical Requirements 2– The Unit 1 Exam 2 4 6 8 10 16 17 24 28 30 31 35 37 44 46 50 54 58 60 67 68 72 80 81 83 86 Cells Human Physiology Disease Appendices These notes may be used freely by A level biology students and teachers, and they may be copied and edited. Please do not use these materials for commercial purposes. I would be interested to hear of any comments and corrections. Neil C Millar (nmillar@ntlworld.co.uk) Head of Biology, Heckmondwike Grammar School High Street, Heckmondwike, WF16 0AH July 2011 HGS Biology A-level notes NCM/7/11 AS Biology Unit 1 page 2 Biology Unit 1 Specification Biochemistry Biological Molecules Biological molecules such as carbohydrates and proteins are often polymers and are based on a small number of chemical elements. • Proteins have a variety of functions within all living organisms. The general structure of an amino acid. Condensation and the formation of peptide bonds linking together amino acids to form polypeptides. The relationship...
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...Notes Enzymes: What must occur for a reaction to proceed? Collision Theory: 1. Reactants must collide 2. Reactants must have enough energy 3. Reactants must hit with proper orientation Here is morbid example of collision theory. How do a train and school bus react to give a train with engine damage and a school bus in two pieces? [pic] If you look back to the three conditions required for a reaction to occur, we can relate them to his terrible accident. In the collision theory, condition number one requires that the train must collide with the bus. Condition number two requires that the train and bus collide with enough energy for the reaction to occur, meaning the train must hit bus with enough energy, not merely tap the bus. The third condition requires that the train and bus hit with the proper orientation. If the bus hit the side of the train, it will not slice the train in have. The train must t-bone the bus. Hopefully this visual will help you to remember the condition required for a reaction to occur. Energy Diagrams: Energy diagrams are also called reaction progress diagrams as they depict the energy of the chemicals involved in the reaction through out the course of the reaction. The following is an example of an exothermic reaction: [pic] A catalyst will lower the activation energy of a reaction. The result is shown in the following reaction progress diagram for an exothermic reaction. [pic] The green line in the transition state is...
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...Philippine Christian University Mary Johnston College of Nursing 415 Morga St. Tondo, Manila A Case Study on Acute Pancreatitis Secondary to Cholelithiasis Submitted by: Abad, Edryan Calara, Sharika Loradel Casul Mark Jury Corpuz, Trisha Dela Cruz, Marjori Gamboa, Jonalyn Lebico, Elmarie Lopez, Anica Tapawan, Ansherina Tuazon, Serleen March 09, 2012 Acknowledgement We would like to thank the following to the development of this case study. Mrs. Edna Oraye-Imperial, Dean, PCU – Mary Johnston College of Nursing, for her support and for allowing us to have our related learning experiences in the clinical area that hone our knowledge skills and attitude to be a competent, caring, Christian nurses. Ms. Ma. Lourdes Galima, Clinical Instructor, for continually guiding and supporting us throughout our duty at the Surgery ward, for helping us in enhancing and improving our skills in the area. For the patience that she showed us despite of our attitude and mistakes. Ms. Loreto Vicarme, School Librarian, for allowing us to utilize the library books and references for our case study. To the staff nurses on duty at the Surgery Intensive Care Unit and Ward of Mary Johnston Hospital for the support and providing us with enough information about the routines in the area which we were able to apply. To our fellow group members for their continuous support and sharing their knowledge and experiences for polishing this case study...
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