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TEORI PERKEMBANGAN PSIKOSOSIAL ERIK ERIKSON
TEORI PERKEMBANGAN
PSIKOSOSIAL ERIK ERIKSON
“Man the un-known” (manusia adalah makhluk yang misteri) demikian di ungkapkan oleh Alexis Carel ketika menggambarkan ketidaktuntasan pencarian hakikat manusia oleh para ahli. Banyak ikhtiar akademis yang dilakukan oleh para ahli saat ingin memapar siapa sesungguhnya dirinya. Ilmu-ilmu seperti filsafat, ekonomi, sosiologi, antropologi juga psikologi dan beberapa ilmu lainnya adalah ilmu yang membahas tentang manusia dengan perspektif masing-masing.
Erik Erikson adalah salah satu diantara para ahli yang melakukan ikhtiar itu. Dari perspektif psikologi, ia menguraikan manusia dari sudut perkembangannya sejak dari masa 0 tahun hingga usia lanjut. Erikson beraliran psikoanalisa dan pengembang teori Freud. Kelebihan yang dapat kita temukan dari Erikson adalah bahwa ia mengurai seluruh siklus hidup manusia, tidak seperti Freud yang hanya sampai pada masa remaja. Termasuk disini adalah bahwa Erikson memasukkan faktor-faktor sosial yang mempengaruhi perkembangan tahapan manusia, tidak hanya sekedar faktor libidinal sexual.
A. Tentang Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Erik Erikson lahir di Franfrurt Jerman, pada tanggal 15 Juni 1902 adalah ahli analisa jiwa dari Amerika, yang membuat kontribusi-kontribusi utama dalam pekerjaannya di bidang psikologi pada pengembangan anak dan pada krisis identitas. Ayahnya (Danish) telah meninggal dunia sebelum ia lahir. Hingga akhirnya saat remaja, ibunya (yang seorang Yahudi) menikah lagi dengan psikiater yang bernama Dr. Theodor Homberger.
Erikson kecil bukanlah siswa pandai, karena ia adalah seorang yang tidak menyenangii atmosfer sekolah yang formal. Ia oleh orang tua dan teman-temannya dikenal sebagai seorang pengembara hingga ia pun tidak sempat menyelesaikan program diploma. Tetapi perjalanan Erikson ke beberapa negara dan perjumpaannya dengan beberapa penggiat ilmu menjadikannya seorang ilmuwan sekaligus seniman yang diperhitungkan. Pertama ia berjumpa dengan ahli analisa jiwa dari Austria yaitu Anna Freud. Dengan dorongannya, ia mulai mempelajari ilmu tersebut di Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, kemudian ia mengkhususkan diri dalam psikoanalisa anak. Terakhir pada tahun 1960 ia dianugerahi gelar profesor dari Universitas Harvard.
Setelah menghabiskan waktu dalam perjalanan panjangnya di Eropa Pada tahun 1933 ia kemudian berpindah ke USA dan kemudian ditawari untuk mengajar di Harvad Medical School. Selain itu ia memiliki pratek mandiri tentang psiko analisis anak. Terakhir, ia menjadi pengajar pada Universitas California di Berkeley, Yale, San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute, Austen Riggs Center, dan Center for Advanced Studies of Behavioral Sciences.
Selama periode ini Erikson menjadi tertarik akan pengaruh masyarakat dan kultur terhadap perkembangan anak. Ia belajar dari kelompok anak-anak Amerika asli untuk membantu merumuskan teori-teorinya. Berdasarkan studinya ini, membuka peluang baginya untuk menghubungkan pertumbuhan kepribadian yang berkenaan dengan orangtua dan nilai kemasyarakatan.
Keinginannya untuk meneliti perkembangan hidup manusia berdasarkan pada pengalamannya ketika di sekolah. Saat itu anak-anak lain menyebutnya Nordic karena ia tinggi, pirang, dan bermata biru. Di sekolah grammar ia ditolak karena berlatar belakang Yahudi.
Buku pertamanya adalah Childhood dan Society (1950), yang menjadi salah satu buku klasik di dalam bidang ini. Saat ia melanjut pekerjaan klinisnya dengan anak-anak muda, Erikson mengembangkan konsep krisis perasaan dan identitas sebagai suatu konflik yang tak bisa diacuhkan pada masa remaja. Buku-buku karyanya antara lain yaitu: Young Man Luther (1958), Insight and Responsibility (1964), Identity (1968), Gandhi's Truth (1969): yang menang pada Pulitzer Prize and a National Book Award dan Vital Involvement in Old Age (1986).
B. Tahap Perkembangan Hidup Manusia
Apakah perkembangan psikososial itu?
Teori Erik Erikson tentang perkembangan manusia dikenal dengan teori perkembangan psiko-sosial. Teori perkembangan psikososial ini adalah salah satu teori kepribadian terbaik dalam psikologi. Seperti Sigmund Freud, Erikson percaya bahwa kepribadian berkembang dalam beberapa tingkatan. Salah satu elemen penting dari teori tingkatan psikososial Erikson adalah perkembangan persamaan ego. Persamaan ego adalah perasaan sadar yang kita kembangkan melalui interaksi sosial. Menurut Erikson, perkembangan ego selalu berubah berdasarkan pengalaman dan informasi baru yang kita dapatkan dalam berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Erikson juga percaya bahwa kemampuan memotivasi sikap dan perbuatan dapat membantu perkembangan menjadi positif, inilah alasan mengapa teori Erikson disebut sebagai teori perkembangan psikososial.
Ericson memaparkan teorinya melalui konsep polaritas yang bertingkat/bertahapan. Ada 8 (delapan) tingkatan perkembangan yang akan dilalui oleh manusia. Menariknya bahwa tingkatan ini bukanlah sebuah gradualitas. Manusia dapat naik ketingkat berikutnya walau ia tidak tuntas pada tingkat sebelumnya. Setiap tingkatan dalam teori Erikson berhubungan dengan kemampuan dalam bidang kehidupan. Jika tingkatannya tertangani dengan baik, orang itu akan merasa pandai. Jika tingkatan itu tidak tertangani dengan baik, orang itu akan tampil dengan perasaan tidak selaras.
Dalam setiap tingkat, Erikson percaya setiap orang akan mengalami konflik/krisis yang merupakan titik balik dalam perkembangan. Erikson berpendapat, konflik-konflik ini berpusat pada perkembangan kualitas psikologi atau kegagalan untuk mengembangkan kualitas itu. Selama masa ini, potensi pertumbuhan pribadi meningkat. Begitu juga dengan potensi kegagalan.
Tahap 1. Trust vs Mistrust (percaya vs tidak percaya) * Terjadi pada usia 0 s/d 18 bulan * Tingkat pertama teori perkembangan psikososial Erikson terjadi antara kelahiran sampai usia satu tahun dan merupakan tingkatan paling dasar dalam hidup. * Oleh karena bayi sangat bergantung, perkembangan kepercayaan didasarkan pada ketergantungan dan kualitas dari pengasuh kepada anak. * Jika anak berhasil membangun kepercayaan, dia akan merasa selamat dan aman dalam dunia. Pengasuh yang tidak konsisten, tidak tersedia secara emosional, atau menolak, dapat mendorong perasaan tidak percaya diri pada anak yang di asuh. Kegagalan dalam mengembangkan kepercayaan akan menghasilkan ketakutan dan kepercayaan bahwa dunia tidak konsisten dan tidak dapat di tebak.
Tahap 2. Otonomi (Autonomy) VS malu dan ragu-ragu (shame and doubt)
· Terjadi pada usia 18 bulan s/d 3 tahun * Tingkat ke dua dari teori perkembangan psikososial Erikson ini terjadi selama masa awal kanak-kanak dan berfokus pada perkembangan besar dari pengendalian diri. * Seperti Freud, Erikson percaya bahwa latihan penggunaan toilet adalah bagian yang penting sekali dalam proses ini. Tetapi, alasan Erikson cukup berbeda dari Freud. Erikson percaya bahwa belajar untuk mengontrol fungsi tubuh seseorang akan membawa kepada perasaan mengendalikan dan kemandirian. * Kejadian-kejadian penting lain meliputi pemerolehan pengendalian lebih yakni atas pemilihan makanan, mainan yang disukai, dan juga pemilihan pakaian. * Anak yang berhasil melewati tingkat ini akan merasa aman dan percaya diri, sementara yang tidak berhasil akan merasa tidak cukup dan ragu-ragu terhadap diri sendiri.
Tahap 3. Inisiatif (Initiative) vs rasa bersalah (Guilt)
· Terjadi pada usia 3 s/d 5 tahun.
· Selama masa usia prasekolah mulai menunjukkan kekuatan dan kontrolnya akan dunia melalui permainan langsung dan interaksi sosial lainnya. Mereka lebih tertantang karena menghadapi dunia sosial yang lebih luas, maka dituntut perilaku aktif dan bertujuan.
· Anak yang berhasil dalam tahap ini merasa mampu dan kompeten dalam memimpin orang lain. Adanya peningkatan rasa tanggung jawab dan prakarsa.
· Mereka yang gagal mencapai tahap ini akan merasakan perasaan bersalah, perasaan ragu-ragu, dan kurang inisiatif. Perasaan bersalah yang tidak menyenangkan dapat muncul apabila anak tidak diberi kepercayaan dan dibuat merasa sangat cemas.
· Erikson yakin bahwa kebanyakan rasa bersalah dapat digantikan dengan cepat oleh rasa berhasil.
Tahap 4. Industry vs inferiority (tekun vs rasa rendah diri)
· Terjadi pada usia 6 s/d pubertas.
· Melalui interaksi sosial, anak mulai mengembangkan perasaan bangga terhadap keberhasilan dan kemampuan mereka.
· Anak yang didukung dan diarahkan oleh orang tua dan guru membangun peasaan kompeten dan percaya dengan ketrampilan yang dimilikinya.
· Anak yang menerima sedikit atau tidak sama sekali dukungan dari orang tua, guru, atau teman sebaya akan merasa ragu akan kemampuannya untuk berhasil.
· Prakarsa yang dicapai sebelumnya memotivasi mereka untuk terlibat dengan pengalaman-pengalaman baru.
· Ketika beralih ke masa pertengahan dan akhir kanak-kanak, mereka mengarahkan energi mereka menuju penguasaan pengetahuan dan keterampilan intelektual.
· Permasalahan yang dapat timbul pada tahun sekolah dasar adalah berkembangnya rasa rendah diri, perasaan tidak berkompeten dan tidak produktif.
· Erikson yakin bahwa guru memiliki tanggung jawab khusus bagi perkembangan ketekunan anak-anak.
Tahap 5. Identity vs identify confusion (identitas vs kebingungan identitas)
· Terjadi pada masa remaja, yakni usia 10 s/d 20 tahun
· Selama remaja ia mengekplorasi kemandirian dan membangun kepakaan dirinya.
· Anak dihadapkan dengan penemuan siapa mereka, bagaimana mereka nantinya, dan kemana mereka menuju dalam kehidupannya (menuju tahap kedewasaan).
· Anak dihadapkan memiliki banyak peran baru dan status sebagai orang dewasa –pekerjaan dan romantisme, misalnya, orangtua harus mengizinkan remaja menjelajahi banyak peran dan jalan yang berbeda dalam suatu peran khusus.
· Jika remaja menjajaki peran-peran semacam itu dengan cara yang sehat dan positif untuk diikuti dalam kehidupan, identitas positif akan dicapai.
· Jika suatu identitas remaja ditolak oleh orangtua, jika remaja tidak secara memadai menjajaki banyak peran, jika jalan masa depan positif tidak dijelaskan, maka kebingungan identitas merajalela.
· Namun bagi mereka yang menerima dukungan memadai maka eksplorasi personal, kepekaan diri, perasaan mandiri dan control dirinya akan muncul dalam tahap ini.
· Bagi mereka yang tidak yakin terhadap kepercayaan diri dan hasratnya, akan muncul rasa tidak aman dan bingung terhadap diri dan masa depannya.
Tahap 6. Intimacy vs isolation (keintiman vs keterkucilan)
· Terjadi selama masa dewasa awal (20an s/d 30an tahun)
· Erikson percaya tahap ini penting, yaitu tahap seseorang membangun hubungan yang dekat dan siap berkomitmen dengan orang lain.
· Mereka yang berhasil di tahap ini, akan mengembangkan hubungan yang komit dan aman.
· Erikson percaya bahwa identitas personal yang kuat penting untuk mengembangkan hubungan yang intim. Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa mereka yang memiliki sedikit kepakaan diri cenderung memiliki kekurangan komitemen dalam menjalin suatu hubungan dan lebih sering terisolasi secara emosional, kesendirian dan depresi.
· Jika mengalami kegagalan, maka akan muncul rasa keterasingan dan jarak dalam interaksi dengan orang.
Tahap 7. Generativity vs Stagnation (Bangkit vs Stagnan)
· Terjadi selama masa pertengahan dewasa (40an s/d 50an tahun).
· Selama masa ini, mereka melanjutkan membangun hidupnya berfokus terhadap karir dan keluarga.
· Mereka yang berhasil dalam tahap ini, maka akan merasa bahwa mereka berkontribusi terhadap dunia dengan partisipasinya di dalam rumah serta komunitas.
· Mereka yang gagal melalui tahap ini, akan merasa tidak produktif dan tidak terlibat di dunia ini.
Tahap 8. Integrity vs depair (integritas vs putus asa)
· Terjadi selama masa akhir dewasa (60an tahun)
· Selama fase ini cenderung melakukan cerminan diri terhadap masa lalu.
· Mereka yang tidak berhasil pada fase ini, akan merasa bahwa hidupnya percuma dan mengalami banyak penyesalan.
· Individu akan merasa kepahitan hidup dan putus asa
· Mereka yang berhasil melewati tahap ini, berarti ia dapat mencerminkan keberhasilan dan kegagalan yang pernah dialami.
· Individu ini akan mencapai kebijaksaan, meskipun saat menghadapi kematian.
C. Perbandingan Sigmudn Freud
Erikson adalah pengembang teori Freud dan mendasarkan kunstruk teori psikososialnya dari psiko-analisas Freud. Kalau Freud memapar teori perkembangan manusia hanya sampai masa remaja, maka para penganut teori psiko-analisa (freudian) akan menemukan kelengkapan penjelasan dari Erikson, walaupun demikian ada perbedaan antara psikosexual Freud dengan psikososial Erikson. Beberapa aspek perbedan tersebut dapat dilihat di bawah ini: Freud | Erikson | Perenan/fungsi id dan ketidaksadaran sangat penting | Peran/fungsi ego lebih ditonjolkan, yang berhubungan dengan tingkah laku yang nyata. | Hubungan segitiga antara anak, ibu dan ayah menjadi landasan yang terpenting dalam perkembangan kepribadian. | Hubungan-hubungan yang penting lebih luas, karena mengikutsertakan pribadi-pribadi lain yang ada dalam lingkungan hidup yang langsung pada anak. Hubungan antara anak dan orang tua melalui pola pengaturan bersama (mutual regulation). | Orientasi patologik, mistik karena berhubungan dengan berbagai hambatan pada struktur kepribadian dalam perkembangan kepribadian. | Orientasinya optimistik, kerena kondisi-kondisi dari pengaruh lingkungan sosial yang ikut mempengaruhi perkembang kepribadian anak bisa diatur. | Timbulnya berbagai hambatan dalam kehidupan psikisnya karena konflik internal, antara id dan super ego. | Konflik timbul antara ego dengan lingkungan sosial yang disebut: konflik sosial. |

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