..."Ultimately, all human beings share core universal values, and apparent differences are merely variances of practices or interpretation." The Pursuit of Universal Shared Values Throughout the twentieth century, philosophers have struggled to understand the nature of human morality, namely, the underlying values that form it. Which factors form the basis of our conception of what is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’—‘good’ and ‘bad’? Do we all share certain values, or some approach, that helps us come about our moral judgments? Is there a universal ‘good’ and ‘bad’? This is really the crux of it, is it not? This essay will present the argument that the pursuit of human happiness—or at least perceived happiness—is the only value that can be considered universal amongst all human beings, and that the differences and conflicts between us stem from different interpretation’s of happiness and the means that should be taken toward its actualization. That is to say that something is ‘good’ to the extent to which it enables perceived happiness, or, disables a lack of perceived happiness. The universality of this value will be suggested to extend to all sentient beings, regardless of human intelligence and the capacity to reason. This essay’s thesis is in agreement with the proposed statement that, “ultimately, all human beings share core universal values, and apparent differences are merely variances of practices or interpretation,” however not to the extent that the ideas of philosophers John...
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...of human rights expansion can be identified: First Wave: It took two world wars to make any real progresson human rights Important precursors to what the future of human rights would be came in 1941 when Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) made his famous FOUR freedoms speech: freedom of speech, of religion, from want and from fear. However, during WWII, these ideas were largely forgotten to secure victory over Germany and Japan—FDR, and subsequently, Truman, tried to pay attention to human rights issues from both a normative as from a realist viewpoint—what they were concerned with was stability or absence of major conflicts in the international system—they wanted to make sure that there would be no repeat of a world war—world peace was beneficial to everyone, including the great powers—however, for a variety of reasons, the real progress on human rights was slow—disagreements between Allied powers, disagreements within the US especially Congress etc. The central dilemma then and now remains the same—if a great power creates a strong international human rights regime so as to prevent human rights violations by other states to the extent of foreign interventions: It violates the sanctity of state sovereignty; and It makes itself answerable to the same international human rights regime and opens itself to scrutiny by other states. The UN Charter became the first ever international treaty to recognize universal human rights—in 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration...
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...Human rights impact Assessment: an INtroduction TABLE OF CONTENTS executive summary3 I. human rights are NOW the business of business4 II. WHAT ARE HUMAN RIGHTS?5 III. WHAT IS AN HRIA FOR? (WHAT GOOD IS IT?)9 IV. WHAt does an hria Add to all of the other studies and assessments?10 V. WHAT IS NEEDED FOR AN HRIA TO BE EFFECTIVE10 VI. EXAMPLE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IMPACT ASSESSMENT12 A. PHASE I: DESKTOP RESEARCH13 B. PHASE iI: FIELD RESEARCH13 C. PHASE IiI: rate impacts14 D. PHASE iV: Feedback16 E. PHASE v: RECOMMENDATIONS AND MONITORING16 APPENDIX I: ACRONYMS17 APPENDIX II: REFERENCES18 Executive Summary The term “Human Rights Impact Assessment” is new. References to human rights are everywhere. It is a topic constantly in the news, in analyses, in the mouths of the activists, academics, and government officials. “Impact assessment” is familiar when describing a study done on the environment, or on public health. But the novel combination of “human rights” and “impact assessment” can surprise and confuse. Human rights are constantly discussed, but rarely defined. Some companies take “human rights” to mean proper use of private security personnel. Some governments use it to mean freedom to protest. Adding to this confusion are new international structures, initiatives and protocols that require companies to conduct human rights impact assessments. When are these to be done? How are they...
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...these theories differ in a number of ways. Utilitarianism is a theory that “considers the pursuit of higher, distinctively human pleasures.” (Mill 115) With utilitarianism, morality is based on outcomes. An action is right if it results in the greatest good for the most number of people. Kant says you do good because you have a duty to do good; the consequences are completely irrelevant. “A good will is good not because of what it performs or effects.” (Kant 141) With Kantian morality one's intentions and good will is all that matters. The debate between Kant and Mill is precisely whether our sense of duty can be compromised by appeals to consequences. Utilitarianism and Kant’s theory both have similarities, strengths and weaknesses. An instrumental good is something that helps you achieve something else. If there are only instrumental goods, then A is good because it helps bring the outcome of B, which is good because it helps bring the outcome of C, and so on, therefore our notion of goodness has no anchor. To some people this seems irrational, and they think goodness must have an anchor, they want to posit an "intrinsic" good somewhere. Both utilitarians and Kantians agree there is an intrinsic good. They also agree in being monists rather than pluralists about goodness. There is one and only one intrinsic good for both of them. If asked what is that good? Utilitarians would say pleasure. Kantians say a good will.“Kants theory has less scope than utilitarianism....
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...other hand, jurisprudence is as an avenue of guaranteeing justice for all. Various legal steps have been developed, including the formulation of laws. This paper seeks to examine the outright nature of these steps in taming disability discrimination. Disability anti-discrimination laws Central to the disability anti-discrimination legal steps are the legal stipulations underlying the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and bill of rights, which have often served as a framework for inequality policies. In particular, the universal Declaration of Human Rights is considered as a common standard for achieving social justice for all people across the world. What is well noticeable from all the articles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is the emphasis for treating every person equally and according equal rights. For instance, article 1 in the preamble stipulates all individuals “are born free and equal in dignity and rights”[2], and that every person is endowed with conscience of treating others with contempt. Article 2 stipulates that every person is subject to rights and freedoms set out in the Declaration —regardless of attributes possessed[3] such as sex,...
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...What are the challenges for a universal conception of human rights? AIR234: Order and Justice in World Politics Brian Introduction Human rights…are those rights and privileges held to belong to any person, regardless of any provision that may or may not exist for them in their legal system, simply because, as a human being, there are things which they may not be forbidden by any government. Exactly what the list of these rights is, or why we are entitled to them, varies from thinker to thinker.[1] Human rights are rights to which every person is entitled simply by virtue of being a human living in a society of other humans. Among these are the right to life, liberty, and the security of the person.[2] Challenges for a Universal Conception of Human Rights: The most intense debate among human rights in the past two decades has been dichotomy between Universalists and cultural relativists. Just as development or modernizations theories presumed a “transition” from traditional to industrial society; it was frequently assumed by universities that non-western cultures will gradually evolve so that the Universalist doctrine of human rights will prevail. Challenges for a Universal conception of Human rights presuppose the value of autonomy, which would lead to some variation in human-rights practice in different cultural and socio-economic conditions. The most difficult case is that in which those who are victims of human-rights violations support the culture that legitimates...
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...affairs, the concepts of Human Security and Human Rights gained relevance in the international security and international norms field. And because those terms are still contested among both the academics and the States’ decision-makers, there is a need for us to understand what they really mean. The purpose of the present essay is to bring forward the differences between Human Security and Human Rights, regarding the fact that they are very similar and complementary, and also to understand the implications that the emphasis in the concept of Human Security have for the States foreign policy and for the international order and justice. The essay is composed by an introduction, a main body where we develop the answers for the research questions, a conclusion and finally the references. 2. The Prominence of the Concept Human Rights in International Relations 3.1. Human Security different from Human Rights? Despite the fact that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted in 1948, due the debate raised because of the Holocaust, the WWII and many others factors, it is known that Human Rights gained more emphasis in the post-Cold War period, when the emergence of new wars (no longer conflicts between nation-states, but intra-state conflicts opposing individuals or communities inside the State mainly characterized by ethnic causes or political identity issues) started to threat the fundamental rights of the individual, such as the right to live. And the...
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...Name: Asher Andrews Submitted to: Ms Elishah St.Luce Class: Business Ethics “The case of slavery in the chocolate industry” ‘ What are the systemic, corporate and individual ethical issues raised by the case? First of all what is ethics? According to Manuel G Velasquez “Ethics is the discipline that examines ones moral standard or the moral standards of a society. It asks how these standards applies to our lives and whether these standards are reasonable or unreasonable, that is, whether they are supported by good reasons or poor ones.” In a nut shell ethics is what individuals and the society view as being right or wrong. The case "Slavery in the Chocolate Industry" discusses labor exploitation in the chocolate industry. It specifically addresses the cocoa beans grown on farms in West Africa, especially the Ivory Coast and Ghana, which make up close to half of the world's chocolate. The cocoa farmers of these nations, rely on slaves to harvest their beans, and in some cases, enslavement of young males. The plight of the enslaved children was publicized around the world in September 2000 when True Vision, a British television company, took videos of slave boys on several Ivory Coast farms and broadcast a documentary in Britain and the United Sates. In 2002, the Chocolate Manufactures Association and the World Cocoa Foundations along with major producers signed an agreement to establish a system of certification to certify use of “slave free” cocoa beans....
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...In a country like Jamaica human rights are conflicting with long term established values and norms. Stone (1992) states that “Values define for a society the things people strive for and attach great meaning and significance to. Norms set rules of behaviour designed to express a commitment to the society’s underlying values.” The United Nations in their article on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights define human rights as “rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status.” We are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. These rights are all interrelated, interdependent and indivisible. The International Convenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) states in its preamble, "in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the ideal of free human beings enjoying freedom from fear and want can only be achieved if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy his or her economic, social and cultural rights, as well as his or her civil and political rights". Jamaica is widely perceived to be the most homophobic country in the Caribbean and, by some accounts, the world (Padgett 2006). Sexuality-based oppression in Jamaica is institutionalized throughout the legal system, health and social welfare institutions, popular culture, religion and through extreme forms of social stigma (White and Carr 2005). Poverty and public...
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...relationships between the sinner and God. Sin also has severe consequences that affect the individual sinner, causing the individual to have social implications. It is evident from both the Old Testament and the New Testament descriptions of sin, that sin is universal. Both testaments describe the extent and intensiveness of sin. Obtaining a contemporary view of the magnitude of sin incorporates a biblical perspective and the best elements of traditional view. Philosophical Foundation or Presupposition When studying the doctrine of sin, one should examine the material through a biblical view. If someone does not believe in the bible, explaining sin may sound like nonsense. Holding a certain philosophical viewpoint can cause tension when theologically analyzing in this area. Specifically, secular psychology clashes with the idea of sin. Psychology often teaches individuals to blame others for their failures in life. They teach that pressure from society, spouses, parents, and environments are the reason for life difficulties. Sure, other people can contribute to our errors and tempt us, or mistreat up, but they are not the cause of the issue itself. No matter how other people act, you can still do what is right and that is exactly what God wants you do to. Psychology often urges people to accept themselves as they are without changing their sinful conduct. Psychologist Carl Rogers describes encounter groups saying, “Each member moves toward greater acceptance of his total being-emotional...
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...Jeremy Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism – Essay a) Explain how Bentham’s Utilitarianism can be used to decide the right course of action. [25] Jeremy Bentham was a British philosopher, jurist, and social reformer that developed a theory of Utilitarianism. Jeremy Bentham was particularly interested in the area of social reform during the 18th century and his theory of Utilitarianism is as a result of this passion. Bentham’s theory became to be known as Act Utilitarianism. This is because the theory was concerned with the amount of happiness and pleasure that an individual’s action causes in order to decide whether it is morally right or wrong. Utilitarianism is a teleological theory, this being as the morality is not concerned with the action itself, but rather the consequences of said action and the amount of pleasure it subsequently results in. For example, if an act results in a high amount of pleasure then it can be deemed to be morally justifiable, where as if no pleasure is created then the act would be morally unjustifiable and wrong. The rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by both the pleasure in which it creates and its utility/usefulness. Bentham said that the morality of an action can be calculated by looking at the amount of pleasure it produced; as well as using what he developed as the Hedonic Calculus. The Hedonic Calculus places a numerical value on the morality of an action, this being calculated through a number of criteria that mist be given a value...
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...been devoted to normative studies which consider how problems which arise because of cultural differences might be resolved (see, however, Evanoff 2004 for a bibliography of recent publications in this area). Normative research differs both from empirical research, which is basically concerned with describing existing patterns of beliefs, values, and behavior through the use of statistical data, interviews, case studies, and the like, and from theoretical studies, which attempt to make generalizations about cultural differences and how people respond to them by abstracting from such data. The methodology of ethics is neither empirical nor theoretical, but rather normative, which means that it basically concerns itself with a consideration of what beliefs, values, and forms of behavior might be plausibly adopted. Metaethics concerns itself with broader issues of how such decisions can be reasoned about, justified, and, indeed, debated across cultures. Intercultural Ethics 2 The normative stance frequently encountered in the field of intercultural communication is that we should “understand and respect” other cultures. While this is certainly a laudable maxim, simply trying to understand and respect people from other cultures does not really tell us much about how we can actually work together on problems of mutual concern. The purpose of...
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...those judgments are based are true. Consistency: to what extent do you think the following individuals are morally inconsistent? • A vegetarian who buys leather shoes • A public school teacher who educates her children at private schools. • A politician who advocates family values and has an extra-marital affair. • An environmental activist who drives an SUV Facts: what facts, if any, are relevant in assessing the following value-judgments? • Child labor should be outlawed • Genetically modified food should be banned • Rich countries should give more financial aid to poor countries Moral relativism According to moral relativism our values are determined by the society we grow up in, and there are no universal values. Moral values are simply customs or conventions that vary from culture to culture. Does relativism imply tolerance? Argument against moral relativism: A committed Nazi says that in his value system genocide is acceptable. The “he’s got his values and I’ve goes mine and who am I to say he’s wrong” response seems completely inappropriate in this case. Surely we want to say that the Nazi really IS wrong! Discussion of tolerance and moral relativism: Imagine that you come across a culture—culture X—imposing their values on another culture. As a good relativist, you insist that they have no right to impose their values on other people. What if they turn to you and state that in their culture it is...
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...someone who has ideal character traits. These traits derive from natural internal tendencies, but need to be nurtured; however, once established, they will become stable. For example, a virtuous person is someone who is kind across many situations over a lifetime because that is her character and not because she wants to maximize utility or gain favors or simply do her duty. Unlike deontological and consequentialist theories, theories of virtue ethics do not aim primarily to identify universal principles that can be applied in any moral situation. And virtue ethics theories deal with wider questions—“How should I live?” and “What is the good life?” and “What are proper family and social values?” Since its revival in the twentieth century, virtue ethics has been developed in three main directions: Eudaimonism, agent-based theories, and the ethics of care. Eudaimonism bases virtues in human flourishing, where flourishing is equated with performing one’s distinctive function well. In the case of humans, Aristotle argued that our distinctive function is reasoning, and so the life “worth living” is one which we reason well. An agent-based theory emphasizes that virtues are determined by common-sense intuitions that we as observers judge to be admirable traits in other people. The third branch of virtue ethics, the ethics of care, was proposed predominately by feminist thinkers. It challenges the idea that ethics should focus solely on justice and...
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...THE UNIVERSITY OF Manchester “Human Rights in World Politics” POLI 70492 Essay title: East meets West: Human Rights in Perspective. Lecturer: Dr James Pattison Essay Question: “Should Universal Human Rights Be Enforced regardless of Cultural differences?” ID Number: 8262033 Introduction: Even though human rights are of the major issues in our current day world, it has not been the case over the course of human history. Despite some early calls by the Greeks especially Aristotle for citizenship rights and participation in the political life, slavery was regarded as a normal feature back then and it was not until the 18th century that serious attempts to protect human rights and dignity took place: The two major events promoting these rights were without doubt the United States of America’s declaration of independence in 1776 and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789 both of which endorsed some basic rights and freedom which were a huge step forward at the time. As an example, the French declaration clearly enclosed the following article “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness”. Following these two events, many Western writers and philosophers such as John Stuart Mill, Thomas Paine, and G.W.F. Hegel defended human civil rights and liberties in their writings...
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