...COMPILER DESIGN LECTURE NOTES UNIT -1 1.1 OVERVIEW OF LANGUAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM 1.2 Preprocessor A preprocessor produce input to compilers. They may perform the following functions. 1. Macro processing: A preprocessor may allow a user to define macros that are short hands for longer constructs. 2. File inclusion: A preprocessor may include header files into the program text. 3. Rational preprocessor: these preprocessors augment older languages with more modern flow-of-control and data structuring facilities. 4. Language Extensions: These preprocessor attempts to add capabilities to the language by certain amounts to build-in macro 1.3 COMPILER Compiler is a translator program that translates a program written in (HLL) the source program and translate it into an equivalent program in (MLL) the target program. As an important part of a compiler is error showing to the programmer. Source pgm Compiler Error msg target pgm Department of CSE -2- Executing a program written n HLL programming language is basically of two parts. the source program must first be compiled translated into a object program. Then the results object program is loaded into a memory executed. Source pgm Compiler obj pgm Obj pgm input Obj pgm opj pgm output 1.4 ASSEMBLER: programmers found it difficult to write or read programs in machine language. They begin to use a mnemonic (symbols) for each machine instruction, which they would subsequently translate into machine language. Such...
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...In the aviation industry, forecasts of air travel demand are important specially for the two biggest aircraft manufacturers (Boeing and Airbus) for a wide variety of economic decisions, including research and development, airplane design such as size and specification, and production planning. “Boeing’s air travel demand forecast is developed by constructing and matching top-down and bottom-up analyses. Bottom-up analysis involves forecasts of traffic between and within individual countries, based on economic predictions, growth momentum, historical trends, travel attractiveness, and projections of the relative openness of air services and domestic airline regulation. Additionally, government statistics on inbound and outbound visitors and tourism receipts are included to identify and cross- check trends. Countries are grouped into geographical regions that generate air traffic flows between and within the regions. In the top-down approach, global and regional markets are similarly projected on aggregated variables. The bottom-up and top-down projections are then reconciled, allowing for the effects of industry and airline business model developments. Further, positive or negative region-specific developments, including population dynamics, shifts toward or away from other modes of transport, and emergence of new air services, are factored in. The resulting regional traffic forecasts are used in developing the airplane demand forecast” (Boeing, 2012). “Airbus Global Market Forecast...
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...Interview with a leader Introduction about the company and the leader X works as an executive and is also a member of the directorate at the government owned firm, Apotekens Service. Apotekens Service was established in 2009, when the pharmacy market in Sweden was de-monopolized. Today it has more than 100 employees, and its function is to work as an allying point of all the necessary information that needs to be shared between the health care and the pharmacies. Its main focus is on electronic prescriptions, since over 80% of all prescriptions are electronic. X is 62 years old, has a degree in pharmacy and started out as a product specialist at the former government owned pharmacy, Apoteket AB. There she gained experience as a project manager and she later became an executive. When Apotekens Service opened up in March 2009, she was an obvious choice for being one of the new executives there, since she had previous leadership experiences and since she was well respected and appreciated. Today, she is responsible for 24 employees and her main work tasks are to council and coach them. Key learning about leadership For X, leadership is about coaching people, rather than controlling them. She only wants to make it easy for her employees to complete their tasks, not give them a solution on all the problems they will encounter. She finds it important that all employees feel engaged, since they are the ones who will lead the work forward, and she wants them to have their own...
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...Introducing Algorithms Dedric D. Owens PRG/211 – Algorithms and Logic for Computer Programming October 28, 2013 John Rogers Describe the Top-Down Approach to Algorithm Writing When developing a program, the top-down approach is more than not the preferred method. This is driven by what the program actually does; basically the function of the program. According to Penn State Lehigh Valley, “top-down design or stepwise refinement is an approach to designing an algorithm” and, there are four steps in this top-down design. These steps are as follows: You have to “understand the problem by thoroughly analyzing it.” Then, “formulate the algorithm by determining and writing the main tasks to be carried out as a sequence of general steps”. The third step is to “fill in more details by determining the sub-tasks, if any, for each main task. Lastly, “repeat step third step until you arrive at a precise algorithm expressed in terms of basic executable instructions.” How is pseudo-code used to assist in writing an algorithm? Pseudo-code is defined as an outline of a program written in a form that can easily be converted into real programming statements. It is sometimes confused with an algorithm when developing a program. In reviewing Prelude to Programming: Concepts and Design, Fifth Edition, (para. 2.1, pg 72 an algorithm is “a step by step method for solving a problem or doing a task.” Pseudo-code uses short and easy to understand phrases in plain...
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... Explain the relative merits of the top-down and bottom-up approaches to budget setting? Budgeting Budgeting is a formal process in which a company's expenses and revenues are planned for the future. Top down and bottom up are two most common budgeting techniques. In the top-down approach, upper management prepares budgets with no input from employees or lower-level managers. In the bottom-up budgeting approach, managers and employees at the department level prepare budgets for their individual departments. A final, organizational budget is prepared by consolidating all individual, department budgets. The relative merits of Top-Down Budgeting Financial Control * When upper management evaluates a company's overall financial needs and compares the needs to projected revenues for a year, it gets a clear picture of how much money it can reasonably allocate to different areas. Decisions are made about where finances will have the most positive impact and staffers are given directives on what they have to work with. This approach allows upper managers to maintain complete financial control over a budget. Accountability of Staff * When a staff is given a certain budget to work with, it must make prudent financial decisions about how the money will be used. This may result in greater financial accountability and more comparison-shopping for products, services and consulting help. Faster Process * Top-down budgeting is much more time-efficient than...
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...the change initiatives must be driven from the top or they should be organic from the bottom up. This is especially the case with organizations that are growing in size where the increase employee base or the skyrocketing sales and revenues mean that the top management’s scope of control is more and hence driving change from the top alone might not just work. And for those organizations that initiate change from the top, they might find themselves in a situation where the middle and bottom layers of the organizational hierarchy may not be responsive or energized in the way the top managements wants them to be. So, the existential questions as to whether there ought to a spontaneous involvement from all the levels, or whether the top management must induce the change, are very real and need to be answered for change initiatives to succeed. | The answer as to which option is preferable depends on a number of factors. First, any change initiative would succeed only if it is communicated appropriately and to all levels. Honest, transparency and feedback loops must be the elements of the change initiative. Next, the employees ought to have a voice in the way the change initiative is managed. For a change initiative to be successful the top management has to communicate and the employees have to respond. Like Bees gathering around honey and being driven by the Queen Bee, organizations have to ensure that while the CEO or the other top managers initiate the change, employees at all...
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...budgeting, though many businesses and corporations, along with the United States government, are moving towards more top-down budgeting, particularly during times of fiscal stress (Peterson, 2012).” BOTTOM UP The components of the Bottom Up approach are as follows: Instruct managers in compensation policies and techniques, distribute forecasting instructions and worksheets, provide consultations to managers, check data and compile reports. Analyze forecasts, review and revise forecasts and budgets with management, conduct feedback with management and monitor budgeted versus actual increases. TOP DOWN Top down approach the budget starts with an assessment from upper management of the pay increase budget for the whole organization. Once the total budget is determined, it is then distributed to each manager, who plans how to dispense it among assistants. Planned pay-level rise is another approach of top down which is the percentage increase in average pay for the unit that is planned to happen. There are several factors that come into play on how much increase the average pay level for the next period and they are as follows: how much the average level was increased this period, ability to pay, competitive market pressures, turnover effects and cost of living (Milkovich, Newman & Gerhart, 2011). The approach my current workplace uses is the Top down approach. I agree, this is wise because the company is small and upper management knows everyone and is able to recognize...
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...agreed that all the CEO’s in the video valued their employees and treat them as a team. They all found a way to take advantage of their employees in a way that would result in positive effects for their companies. The strategy each CEO chose to take resulted in a respect among the higher level employees and the lower level of employees. The two corporate strategies the four CEO's talked about were Top Down and Flat. The CEO's talked about how each strategy had its own uses and how each may provide different results. While watching the videos, it was noticed by our group, that the four CEOs discussed the top-down corporate strategy more than any other. Our group also agreed that the Top Down strategy was the preferred approach among the employees. One of the CEO’s talked about how it allowed for a quicker way to find the talent amongst the employees and how people feel they can reach out with problems or information to their managers. This created a way for the department or company to find a better way to get things done. Other CEO's talked about how the Top Down approach was a way for managers and subordinates to work on a team level and all would hear the ideas expressed. This would help decisions be made that would cause better results for the company. In this type of work environment, employees are given a certain amount of authority and they can be flexible, instead of having to run to the manager every time a small decision needs to be made. It was...
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...they might find difficult for themselves when trying to reach an unrealistic target for their unit (McQuerrey n.d.). * Set a common goal for all departments about the expected sales or production activity that need to be reached within the organization (McQuerrey n.d.). B. * Deeper focus as huge amount of employee involved in planning which result in improving employee motivate and morale and make them feel utilized when their area of expert involved in planning (Filev 2008) * Employee will feel that their concerns are heard and respected. This result in creating collaborate effort where all parties understand each other need and expectation which promote the productive when they are working together (Walther n.d.) * Top manager might feel loss of financial control and cannot achieve an effective budget project as unnecessary expense might incur due to lack of experienced from lower-level employee (Filev 2008). * Planning and control stage might take more time and cost overruns the bottom-up approach will be greater than expected (Baumeyer n.d.). C. Communication process under...
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...responsible for feeling the sting of the caliper. Student number 2: responsible for sticking the student number 1. Student number 3: responsible for write down the results. Student number 4: moral support. Experiment: the student number 1 extended his arm to receive the nudge without seeing how many points the student number 2 was using. The student number 2 chooses the distances between the points and if he would poke finger or forearm randomly so that the student number 1 would not be influenced by the order of the distances. The student number 3 wrote if the student number 1 felt one point or two. State the percentage of participants who felt two points at each of the six distances on the finger. 0.0 cm - 0% 0.5 cm - 80% 1.0 cm - 100% 1.5 cm - 100% 3.0 cm - 100% 5.0 cm - 100% State the percentage of participants who felt two points at each of the six distances on the forearm. 0.0 cm - 0% 0.5 cm - 20% 1.0 cm - 20% 1.5 cm - 60% 3.0 cm - 60% 5.0 cm - 100% Was there a difference in the touch sensitivity on the finger compared to on the forearm (i.e., did participants feel two points in one area more than in the other)? Yes. The participantes were more sensitive on the forearm than the finger. Describe 5 sensory experiences (1 for each sense – vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch) and how top-down and bottom-up...
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...1. Introduction Most diversity initiatives start from the top with the leadership commitment. A high-level strategy is developed, complete with vision, mission and goals. But by the time it gets to the bottom (if it ever makes it!), it is often interpreted very differently. The intent of top-down approaches is noble, but without an equally effective bottom-up strategy, diversity initiatives invariably get stuck in the middle. In most cases, when a company decides to focus on diversity, the CEO and other top-level executives will incorporate a philosophical message in a variety of company publications and in presentations and reports given both internally and externally. These well-worded communications usually speak to ‘valuing and respecting diversity’, ‘the desire to have an organisation that is representative of the labour force and customer base’, ‘social responsibility, and compliant with the law and anti-discrimination policies’. A wide variety of processes, policies, and strategies are then developed to promote awareness and appreciation of differences, ensure fair treatment, increase representation, and create a culture of inclusion. 3. Key features of a bottom-up approach # Focus on the individual Recognising that change happens one person at a time and that everyone is different (e.g. have had different experiences), a bottom-up approach develops different learning solutions and strategies to meet individuals where they are. For example, white males often feel...
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...considerable autonomy in decision-making. Under a general manager were two line managers responsible for production and marketing functions. Over the years, the Aluminum Can Division had built plants scattered throughout the country. Each plant is responsible to serve a geographical area, both for large and small-scale customers. The industry is very competitive, as each manufacturer employs the same technology and everyone was viewed by customers to have the same product quality as anyone in the industry. Thus, customers can readily shift from one supplier to another in cases that delivery schedulesand product qualities were not met. Vershire employs a long-term budgetary control system. Corporate sales budgets are prepared both in a top-down and bottom-up approach. These sales budgets are then translated to sales target per production plants and became the basis of target profits for each plant. Upon the end of the period, managers are then evaluated based on these target profits, even when budgeted sales are not met. Also, other performance measures are at place that is inconsistent and do not derived meaningful results. Although Vershire has been successful especially in the Aluminum Can division, the changing environment and industry conditions may result to necessary changes to company policies and procedures. Problem Statement How can Vershire maintain its profitability and current position in the industry? How can the company delegate...
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...sub-programs had to work together to produce the desired programs. Program logic was guided by the limitations of primary memory, and programs were designed with the objective of executing them as fast as possible. However, as application programs grew in size, several programmers worked together to solve them. Project teams were set up, consisting of several programmers and a project leader. However, programmers often switch jobs and might leave a company before a project is fully developed, thus requiring another programmer to continue the unfinished work midstream. This required formulation of a definite summary of how a problem is to be solved. This was not provided by the bottom-up approach to programming. Another approach was required. Top-down Design In recent years, computer memory ceased to be the limitation factor for most of the application programs. This, along with increasing software complexity and maintenance hitches, shifted the focus from the execution time to the programming techniques adopted in development of a program. It allowed programs to be written in a more organized manner, i.e., in a structured manner, producing code that is easier to read, analyze, and modify later – if the...
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...Top - down and bottom- up planning -Virutha COLLAPSE ------------------------------------------------- Top of Form Top-down planning Top-down planning is referred to as strategy in which business decisions are established at senior level or top management and employees are expected to fall into place and follow the commands and instructions.Top-down project planning is focused on laying out specific expectations for the employees seeking guidance or advice and instructions. As employees are not included in any of the decision making process. They are mostly motivated through either fear or incentives. Positive implications * Employees Know Their Roles - Employees know their roles and follow specific methodology. In a business which requires exacting steps, top-down planning can provide a good fit to management and those employees who enjoy being directed and want to know their everyday task. * Levels the performance Field - A very minimal sense of competition among the rank- and –file. As management possess the highest power of decision making ,each employees will understand that they are in the same boat and coming up with new ideas will not necessarily get anyone ahead. There's no need to worry about being upstaged by a particularly ingenious colleague. * Easy to evaluate - Top down planning begins board, becomes more specific and easy to evaluate as move down to hierarchy * Faster Process - The top-down approach is less time-intensive, save lots of...
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...organization is in more of a "team" structure. For example, the company would be structured into departments such as the finance department or compliance department. This type of structure is great for those companies that are smaller in size, perhaps less than 100 employees because it relies heavily on the knowledge of all employees (Writing, 2012). With that said, sometimes having a functional structure will keep departments from communicating with the other departments because each team has a specific function. Companies with a functional structure may find themselves spending time working with the employees to “drop the communicative walls”. Medtronic, a pharmaceutical company, for example, uses a functional structure combined with a top-down approach (Kimes, 2009). In a product structure, the company is divided based on the product that the division is producing. For example, a company that produces cars may have an engine division and a transmission division because it is product-based. While the product segmentation has similar drawbacks to the functional structure, there are significantly more restrictions. A company in a product type set up is not leveraging their employees in the fullest extent; think of this as a company with “walls” up, the employees do not leave their division or “walls”; therefore, they are not taking advantage of all the employees’ knowledge. 3M – another pharmaceutical company – is product based company (Kimes, 2009). This is an example of...
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