...The problems of race and urban poverty remain pressing challenges which the United States has yet to address. Changes in the global economy, technology, and race relations during the last 30 years have necessitated new and innovative analyses and policy responses. A common thread which weaves throughout many of the studies reviewed here is the dynamics of migration. In When Work Disappears, immigrants provide comparative data with which to highlight the problems of ghetto poverty affecting blacks. In No Shame in My Game, Puerto Rican and Dominican immigrants are part of the changing demographics in Harlem. In Canarsie, the possible migration of blacks into a working/middle-class neighborhood prompts conservative backlash from a traditionally liberal community. In Streetwise, the migration of yuppies as a result of gentrification, and the movement of nearby-ghetto blacks into these urban renewal sites also invoke fear of crime and neighborhood devaluation among the gentrifying community. Not only is migration a common thread, but the persistence of poverty, despite the current economic boom, is the cornerstone of all these works. Poverty, complicated by the dynamics of race in America, call for universalistic policy strategies, some of which are articulated in Poor Support and The War Against the Poor. In When Work Disappears, William Julius Wilson builds upon many of the insights he introduced in The Truly Disadvantaged, such as the rampant joblessness, social isolation, and...
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...Although the proposed policy interventions would support the reduction of child morality in SSA, they can only be seen as a foundation for further work due to the uni-dimensional approach. The use of generalized policy reform is problematic as research shows that a variety of other variables can directly influence child mortality, such as regional differences and disease, and thus must also be controlled for. It is worth pointing out that, despite the results of their study indicating that child mortality levels vary across regions, Amouzou and Hill (2005) fail to address the need for individualised policy intervention to specifically target problem regions. Despite being more time consuming and costly, this method of intervention would...
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...URAN SPRAWL: DIAGNOSIS AND REMEDIES Throughout this article, the main focus is urban sprawl and the non-endearing remedies to fix this growing concern. Three influential forces are the end results of urban sprawl: a growing population, rising incomes, and falling commuting costs. Although these sound positive to societies well being, market failures are distorting their positive social desirability. The allocation of agricultural land converted to urban usage has justified the criticism of urban sprawl by not accounting for the benefits of open space, social costs of road congestion, and developers failing to pay for the infrastructure costs generated. The remedies projected for these market failures in hope of alleviating the spatial size of the city are developmental taxes and congestion tolls (1). Critics raise a few questions about urban sprawl and the possible remedies policy makers could enact. But, are they are justifiable? The first one is, is urban sprawl truly a growing problem affecting American society? Throughout the article, Brueckner states both views on urban sprawl: The criticism against it and how to prevent it, and the benefits of urban sprawl to American society. Another question addressed is, is urban sprawl contributing to the decay of downtown areas? With the growth of urban development, the incentive to rebuild land and housing closer to the city center is reduced. This is because developers can purchase large amounts of farmland further away from...
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...URBANIZATION AND LABOUR MIGRATION IN NIGERIA By Anyaele Samuel O. Mabogunje (1968), defined urbanization as the process whereby human beings congregates in relatively large number at one particular spot of the earth surface. The particular spot is refered to urban centers. Urbanization simply put, is a demographical phenomenon charaterized with the movement of people from the rural settings to permanently dwell in the city (urban areas). Labour migration on the other hand, is the process through which an individual move from an administrative territorial community to another community in order to gain an employment. There are two types of labour migration namely; the contemporary labour migration which is also refered to as oversea or contract workers. Here, an individual migrates for a little period in order to send money back home. And the highly skilled and business migrants; here, people with qualifications like executives, technicians, professionals and its similar prowless move within the international or national labour market to gain employment. Urbanization process are those factors that facilitates a place to turn into urban center. These factors includes; migration (PUSH – PULL FACTORS), natural increase, government policies, exchange of trade etc. MIGRATION- migration is a rational movement that invovles a change in place of residence across a defined geo-political boundary. Migration is age, sex, destination and reason selective. Factors that instigates individuals varies...
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... http://jtlu.org . 6 . 1 [2013] pp. 7–24 http://dx.doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.v1.425 Linking urban transport and land use in developing countries Robert Cervero University of California, Berkeley a e mobility challenges of the developing world are considerably different than those in wealthier, advanced countries, and so are the challenges of coordinating transportation and land use. Rapid population growth, poverty and income disparities, overcrowded urban cores, poorly designed road networks, spatial mismatches between housing and jobs, deteriorating environmental conditions, and economic losses from extreme traffic by congestion are among the more vexing challenges faced by developing cities that could be assuaged through improved coordination of transportation and urban development. is is underscored by examples reviewed in this paper from South Asia, Southeast Asia, China, India, Africa, and South America. It is concluded that whatever is done to improve transportation and land-use integration must be pro-poor. e cardinal features of integrated and sustainable transport and urbanism everywhere—accessible urban activities and safe, attractive walking and cycling environs—are particularly vital to the welfare and prosperity of urbanites in the world’s poorest countries. Abstract: Keywords: Urban transportation; land use; Developing cities; Air quality; Poverty 1 The challenges of rapid growth in developing cities e...
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...Agenda 21 during its nineteenth Special Session in 1997, the General Assembly noted that, over the next twenty years, transportation is expected to be the major driving force behind a growing world demand for energy. It is the largest end-use of energy in developed countries and the fastest growing one in most developing countries. Furthermore, adequate, efficient, and effective transport systems are important for access to markets, employment, education and basic services critical to poverty alleviation. Current patterns of transportation development are not sustainable and may compound both environmental and health problems. There is, therefore, a need for urgent action, ranging, inter alia, from the promotion of integrated transport policies and plans, the accelerated phase-out of leaded gasoline, the promotion of voluntary guidelines and the development of partnerships at the national level for strengthening transport infrastructure, promoting and supporting the use of non-motorised transport and developing innovative mass transit schemes. Within the framework of the Commission’s multi-year programme of work, transport was discussed by the Commission at its ninth session in 2001. Countries agreed that international co-operation is required in order to ensure transport systems support sustainable development. Countries stressed the importance of efficient and affordable transport systems for poverty alleviation and the need to mitigate adverse externalities to health and...
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...Massive Aggregate Transmission and Commercial (AT&C) losses have long crippled the financial viability of State Distribution Companies (SDCs). To address this problem a targeted funding mechanism was introduced for the first time in 2003 in the form of the Accelerated Power Development Reforms Programme (APDRP). Its key objectives were to reduce AT&C losses, improve customer satisfaction as well as financial viability of the SDCs, adopt a systems approach and introduce greater transparency. Unfortunately, the benefits under the first APDRP were not linked to demonstrable performance and it failed glaringly to achieve its goals. In several cases, funds under the first APDRP were utilised without taking cognisance of the need to reduce AT&C losses. To illustrate, in the state of Bihar, significant amounts of money received under the first APDRP were spent on sophisticated equipment for substations, while very little money was spent on procuring meters to measure actual consumption of electricity. In fact, AT&C losses increased in Haryana, Jharkhand, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh under the first APDRP. It was in this backdrop that the Restructured APDRP (R-APDRP) was conceived in September 2008. Key features Funding under R-APDRP is contingent upon actual, demonstrable performance in terms of sustained reduction of AT&C losses. R-APDRP seeks to commence with tackling the problem of un-metered supply and lack of proper data acquisition systems, followed by system up-gradation...
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...An Urban Nation Yakema Whiteside History Of the United States July 28 2014 Decades of studies have proved the United States has changed from a rural to an urban nation. The most important city, New York, probably contained fewer than 22,000 people at the time of the Revolution. And only one person in twenty lived in a place with a population greater than 2,500—a size even then hardly considered urban. The course of the nineteenth century saw the North American landscape literally transformed by urbanization. But so, for that matter, was most of the Western world: compared to Britain, for instance, the United States has always been less urban. Thus while urbanization represents a dramatic change, it would have been far more remarkable for the United States to have stayed rural. . Rapid urban growth is responsible for many environmental and social changes in the urban environment and its effects are strongly related to global change issues. The rapid growth of cities strains their capacity to provide services such as energy, education, health care, transportation, sanitation and physical security. Because governments have less revenue to spend on the basic upkeep of cities and the provision of services, cities have become areas of massive sprawl, serious environmental problems, and widespread poverty. The Creative Class is not a class of workers among many, but a group believed to bring economic growth to countries that can attract its members. The economic benefits conferred...
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...Discuss the impact of the automobile’s rise on urban form during the twentieth century and critically evaluate planning measures used to limit the negative social and environmental aspects Since the rise of the automobile, there have been many dramatic changes to urban form in attempts to accommodate this new mode of transport. Focusing on America and Britain, this discussion considers influences on all scales ranging from reclassification of physical roads to the decentralization of urban cores. The rising social and environmental concerns caused by the increase in vehicle usage include pedestrian safety, residential livability, and environmental deterioration. I have decided to explore this question by considering features that have both affected urban form and also acted as planning measures to limit negative social and environmental impacts, these include motorway developments, the garden city urban planning approach and Greenbelts. With over 15 million units of Ford Motor T sold between 1908 and 1927 (Flink, 2001), urban form was most dramatically influenced in American cities during the correlating time period. Planners began to oppose the conventional Roman-grid layouts, where streets were arranged at perpendicular angles to each other. Rising traffic congestion at intersections placed pressure on city planners to reorganise the structural layout in attempts to liberate these chaotic streets. Pedestrians were heavily victimised...
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...Theorising the peri-urban As a result of the rapid growth of cities across Nigeria, peri-urban settlements, referred to as transition zones, where urban and rural activities exist side by side have experienced rapid alterations induced by human activities (Thando & Gwebu, 2013). Furthermore, to understand this dynamics of change in peri-urban settlements, different scholars have undertaken a myriad of studies with a view to explaining the patterns, determinants, impacts and policy implications of the spatial expansion of cities in the developing world. Most of these present-day discussions of peri-urban settlements emphasize patterns of change, mainly resulting from infringement from a neighbouring city as explained in their expressions....
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...the pressure of urbanization has affected the urban environment of Iranian cities on a large scale and it makes the serious environmental damages to the body of these cities. In order to, the urban environment can be considered as a commercial product that it has to change according to the citizen’s desired during the time. This situation for big cities like Mashhad has a special status. Another side, Mashhad is a religious Metropolis and it attracts about 20 million pilgrims every year. Thus, migration to Mashhad with the aim of achieving to the job opportunities and better income is the main motivation for the youth immigrant. This fast growth rate of urban areas has given rise to immense social, economic and physical problems...
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...forces of human undertaking. Today, American society is faced with a residential, geographic phenomenon among urban and suburban communities that disadvantages African American citizens through the discriminatory denial of residential and economic freedom, a Constitutional promise that is guaranteed to all Americans. Modern America is confronted with a socially and geographically segregated society structured on the hierarchies of race, having the greatest consequences for African American communities, the most segregated racial group in American society. The Great Migration of the early twentieth century was a symbolic beacon of hope for African Americans leaving their homes in the rural South to a new land of promise in the urban North. While this migration created vast amounts of opportunity for African Americans that could have not existed in the Jim Crow-era South, the movements of these people would carry the racial divisions and hostilities of society to the level of a national plight. Northern whites implemented various practices in order to manipulate urban housing markets in the effect of restricting the residential mobility of African Americans and to confining African Americans to undesirable urban neighborhoods, and therefore setting the nature of race relations in northern communities and leading to the national development of twentieth century urban ghettos. In effect of this mass migration, racially motivated actions of individual American citizens, private...
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...by a chronic unemployment problem, which means that a typical migrant cannot expect to secure a high-paying urban job immediately. Therefore, in deciding to migrate, the individual must balance the probabilities and risks of being unemployed or underemployed for a considerable period of time against the positive urban-rural real income differential. Considering these factors in addition to the traditional model, Todaro model was developed. Thus the fundamental idea of Todaro model is that migrants should consider the various labour market opportunities available to them in the rural and urban sectors and choose the one that maximizes their expected gains from migration. It is a theory that explains rural-urban migration as an economically rational process despite high urban unemployment. Characteristics: 1. Migration is stimulated primarily by rational economic considerations of relative benefits and costs, mostly financial but also psychological. * The theory assumes that members of the labor force, both actual and potential, compare their expected incomes for a given time period in the urban sector with prevailing average rural incomes and migrate if the return exceeds the cost of migration. Example: Average rural farm laborer or working his own land receives an annual average real income of 50 units. A worker with skill or education working in urban, can obtain wage employment yielding an annual real income of 100 units. In fact, it is much more likely that...
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...Urbanization Insert Name Here Insert Affiliation Here Urbanization/CASE Urbanization refers to the reallocation from a rustic to an urban social order due to shifts in global variants. It is a product of economic, political and social advancement that has paved the way for the emergence of large metropolis, cause a spike in the population density of the region. A survey predicted that half of the earth’s inhabitants would reside in urban centers towards the end of 2008 (United Nations). Intimately connected to the processes of modernization, industrialization and rationalization, the phenomenon has it genesis in the Renaissance period. Continuous attacks by the Turks caused the Christians to migrate from the east to the west of Europe. Consequently, the volume of trade rose and European cities besides the coastline progresses impressively. An additional push was given to urbanization upon the advent of the Industrial Revolution; the population density of European and American cities continued to intensify. For instance, the city of Chicago saw it population rise from fifteen individuals to over twenty million in a timeframe of seventy eight year. Yet, the phenomenon took hold of the Asian and African region only after sovereignty from colonial subjugation; in the first and second half of the 20th century, respectively (Howard Gillette Jr.). As mentioned before, the process of urbanization takes place when individuals abandon their rural lifestyle and migrate to...
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...India India urbanized rapidly. The urban population in India at the beginning of the 20th century was about 25.8 million constituting 10.8 % of the total population in 1901. The problem with urbanization arose when the definition of urban center could not be standardized in the first Census which was conducted after gaining independence and also because of massive rural-urban migration which occurred due to partition of the country. The highest level was noted during 1970 (3.8%). It increased to 286.1 million comprising 27.8 % of the total population in 2001. The average annual growth rate of the urban population was 2.37 % in 2001. There was a slight decrease in the period of 2005-2010, and annual growth rate was 2.31%. However, with the beginning of 2011, the situation changed to 2.76%. It is predicted that this number will only increase. Industrialization started with the help of first Prime Minister. It was a key to alleviating poverty. Thus, India gave priority to heavy industry and neglected agriculture. The government was allowed to regulate all basic business decisions. Beginning of 1980 brought mild trends of deregulation together with economic reforms and liberation of trade and financial policies. In 1991, there was adopted a major reform program. The government promoted competitive economy and foreign investments. Global integration was encouraged with a significant reduction in the usage of important tariffs and licenses. In 1993, trade was completely free. An average...
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