Free Essay

Water Quality Analysis

In: Science

Submitted By eminent
Words 4870
Pages 20
1

Analysis of Three Instructional Design Models

2
Abstract
Instructional design models provide for a systematic approach of implementing the instructional design process for a specific educational initiative (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2004). This paper will briefly describe the purpose and what instructional models are followed by process of three selected models: (a) the Dick and Carey systems approach; (b) Morrison, Ross and Kemp model
(also known as the Kemp model); and (c) the Three-Phase design (3PD) model. The process description for each model will serve as the foundation and supporting points required for comparing and contrasting process of the models.

1
Dick and Carey, Kemp, and Three-Phase Design models for Instructional Design
Instructional design (ID) models can provide a systematic approach of implementing the instructional design process for specific educational initiatives (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2004).
Gustafson & Branch (1997) states that there is a wide variety of instructional design models describing the ID process created for different situations and settings (as cited in Gustafson &
Branch, 2002b; Ryder, 2006).
The purpose of the instructional design models offer both educational and training organizations design steps, management guidelines and teamwork collaboration options with designers, technicians and clients (Gustafson & Branch, 2002a). Specifically by definition, a model can be defined as “a way of doing something; an explicit representation of a reality. It is an example or pattern that prescribes relationships in a normative sense” (Branch & Gustafson,
1998, p. 4).
A model can also function as a visual and communication tool to help conceptualize complex schematics or instructional design process along with how the various stages or elements relate to each other (Gustafson & Branch, 2002a). The application and value of a model is dependant on the instructional situation, problem or task (Siemens, 2002; Ryder, 2006).
Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model
The Dick and Carey systems approach model is one of the most influential ID system oriented models. Like most models, the Dick and Carey system bears the conventional core elements of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation, also known as the
ADDIE model (see Figure 1). The Dick and Carey model is more complex where the approach based from the five core elements is broken down to additional or variety of steps with different terminology (Brant, 2001; Gustafson & Branch, 2002a). Most importantly, Brant (2001) states

2 that, designers must end up with a product containing accomplished objectives and measurable outcomes. This process used in many businesses, government including military environments as well as performance technology and computer aided instructions reflects the fundamental design process (Gustafson & Branch).
Dick & Carey Systems Approach Model

Figure 1. Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model showing the linear approach for design instruction with review process. ADDIE components (indicated in red) are added for discussion analysis (source from Dick, Carey & Carey 2001, p.2).
The components for the model stated by Dick, Carey and Carey (2001) consist of nine procedural steps or linear sequences (see Figure 1). Each of these components is dependant upon one another indicated by the direction of solid arrow lines. Dotted lines representing formative evaluations points to instructional revisions that originates from reexamination of the instructional analysis’ validity and entry behaviors of learners. The sequential steps for the design are as follows: (a) assess needs to help identify learning goals, (b) conduct instructional analysis and analyze learners and contexts, (c) write performance objectives, (d) develop assessment instruments (e) develop instructional strategies (f) develop and select instructional material (g) design and conduct formative evaluations, (h) revise instruction based from

3 formative evaluations, (i) design and conduct summative evaluation (not a mandatory step)
(Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001; Gustafson & Branch, 2002a).
Assess needs to help identify learning goals. The application of this first component makes it unique from other models in that it supports the use of needs assessment procedures and clear measurable goals. “Goals are clear statements of behaviors that learners are to demonstrate as a result of instruction” (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001 p.30). Instructional goals must be created before the implementing the ID process (Dick et al; Gustafson & Branch, 2002).
Conduct instructional analysis. Before proceeding with instruction implementation, designers must conduct the process of instructional analysis to find out prior learner’s skills, knowledge and attitudes. They must also carefully examine and create step-by step task description to help learners achieve instructional goals (Dick et al, 2001).
Analyze learners and contexts. This step aligned with the process of instructional analysis
(see figure 5), involves the collection of information on learners’ entry behavior, characteristics, prior knowledge, skills and attitude, academic motivation and learning preferences. An instructional design can then proceed to the selection of an environment that can support learning. The performance context for learning application and skills is important for the building of instructional strategies (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001).
Write performance objectives. Next, objectives in the form of specific statements are important for informing what learners will do during instruction and upon completing of an instructional module. Objectives also function as measuring tools that connect to the assessment step (Gustafson & Branch, 2002). Dick, Carey & Carey (2001) consider this as the foundational step to the next stage for testing.

4
Develop assessment instruments. The purpose of assessments is to measure the performance objectives. Knowing each objective’s behavior, conditions and criteria, offers the designer guidance on how to select and determine an assessment instrument that can measure performance objectives. Both objectives and assessments again are dependant on each other
(Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001).
Develop instructional strategies. Four major components consisting of pre-instructional activities, content presentation, learner participation (including feedback) and follow-through activities make up the instructional strategy component. Instructional strategies must focus on memory and transfer skills. The instructional designer while considering learning theories, should also decide the medium for instructional delivery including lesson interactivity (Dick,
Carey & Carey, 2001).
Develop and select instructional material. Depending on lessons taught and available supporting resources, instructional materials function as important resource for knowledge and skills. Learners are required to engage actively with the instructional material. By the end of this phase, the designer should have draft copies of materials, assessments and instructor manual. The designer can continue revising and improving lesson materials during the evaluation process
(Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001).
Design and conduct formative evaluations. Gustafson and Branch (2002) state that the process of designing and conducting of formative evaluations can help assess the value of instructional goals. Three types of evaluations are recommended for the process, one-to-one evaluation, small group evaluation and field evaluation (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001).

5
Revise instruction based from formative evaluations. Data collected from formative evaluations is then used for instruction revision. This is the final step of the design process but also functions as the first step for the interaction process (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001).
Design and conduct summative evaluation. Dick, Carey and Carey (2001) state the summative evaluation though is considered a culminating evaluation for examining instructional effectiveness; is not part of the nine basic stems of the systems approach model. It is also not an integral part because the designer of instructor in not involved in this process.
The above descriptions clearly indicate the linear form for the Dick, Carey and Carey model. Each process cannot function as a stand-alone. Dick, Carey and Carey (2001), claims to say that the systematic approach of the model is an effective and successful approach because of its focus on learners’ objectives and final achievement prior to the planning and implementation stage. Next, there is a careful linkage between instructional strategy (targeted skills and knowledge) and desired learning outcomes (appropriate conditions must be supplied by instruction). The final and most important reason is the replicable and pragmatic design process where the product is usable for many learners and different occasions; time and effort revising the design product during the evaluation and revision process is recommended.
The team involved in the above design process often times consist of the instructional designer and team of specialist comprised of the manager, content specialist, media producer and evaluator. The team draws on each other’s skills to produce the product. Instructor with specialized skills can also be a stand-alone team (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001).
Morrison, Ross & Kemp Model (Kemp model)
Kemp states that the instructional design approach that focuses on curriculum planning stems from the learner’s perspective rather than content, making it different from traditional

6 design practice. The factors, which influences learning outcomes contributed to the constructs of
Kemp’s model, included the following: (a) level of readiness in dealing with lesson objectives,
(b) instructional strategies related to objectives and student characteristics, (c) media and resource selection, (d) support for successful learning, (e) determination of objective achievements, and finally (f) needed revisions for program improvements (as cited in Gustafson
& Branch, 2002b; Morrison, Ross & Kemp, 2004).
Morrison, Ross & Kemp’s complete model of instructional design plan consists of nine elements arranged in a circular manner (clockwise) in a form of an oval shape (see Figure 2).
The elements are, (a) instructional problem identification and goal specifications of an instructional course, (b) examination of learner’s characteristics based on instructional decisions,
(c) subject content identification with task analysis related to goals and purposes, (d) instructional objective specifications, (e) instructional units in arranged in logical and sequential order for learning, (f) instructional strategies designed to meet the mastery of lesson objectives,
(g) plan and develop instruction, (h) evaluation instruments for measuring course objectives and
(i) resource selection for instruction and learning activities (Morrison, Ross & Kemp, 2004).
The introductory phase for Kemp’s model places the most emphasis in the design process
(Morrison Ross & Kemp, 2004). Morrison et al. state that the instructional designer must conduct a needs assessment and goal analysis, also known as performance assessment to see if instruction or training is required. This is the problem identification stage is required prior to the process of designing a course.

7
Kemp Model

Figure 2. Kemp’s Model with ADDIE components added for discussion analysis (Source from
Morrison, Ross & Kemp, 2004 p. 29).
Each non-linear element for design process (no connecting arrows or lines as shown in
Figure 2) arranged in an oval pattern indicate is not predetermined; hence, it does not have a targeted starting point. The term element is used instead of the terms “step, stage, level or sequential item” since the model is not a true linear approach (Morrison, Ross & Kemp, 2004 p.
10). The instructor can start from any point in the oval and proceed in any manner. This flexible arrangement allows the individual to select either one of the processes for the course needs. In addition, the two outer ovals additions to the diagram represent managerial and feedback procedures conducted during the design, development and implementation stages. This nonlinear structure again allows to designer to customize based on the organization or institutional needs. The purpose is having the flexibility structure is to ensure that the goals of learning objectives are not compromised (Morrison, Ross & Kemp, 2004).

8
In reference to the evaluation process, the management and instructional designer has the option to utilize formative (reflective data of instructional objectives), summative evaluations
(test program effectiveness, including cost and benefits) and confirmative evaluations (follow-up after students leave the program). Like Dick and Carey’s model, the formative evaluations which is a measuring tool for quality control during the development process is made up of three stages, one-to-one, small group and field trials for evaluating larger student or participant population.
Summative evaluations conducted at the end of the instructional program are followed up by confirmative evaluations for reviewing student competencies and performance outcomes
(Morrison et al, 2004). In summary, the Kemp design model focuses on resource creation, implementation and delivery followed by evaluation and improvement (Sims & Jones, 2002).
Three-Phase Design (3PD) Model
The 3PD model is, “an enhancement to the traditional instructional design process focuses on the creation of functional course delivery components, with evaluation and improvement activities integrated with scaffolding (support) for the teacher and learners to provide a dynamic teaching and learning environment in which resources or strategies can be developed or modified during the actual delivery stage” (Sims & Jones, 2003, p. 8). The dynamic process requires ongoing communication with the support team for best implementation. As illustrated in Figure 3, the 3PD model team under each iteration phase comprises of the academic person (A), designer (D), and educational designer (ED) has a focus on developing successful online projects. The ultimate goal is for this model is to enable the academic while attending to content maintenance, to become less dependent on the developer and educational designer over a period of time, hence becoming an independent designer and developer (Sims & Jones 2002).

9
Three-phase Design (3PD) Model

Figure 3. Three-phase Design Model with ADDIE components added for discussion analysis
(source from Sims & Jones, 2002. p. 4).
The 3PD model bases on the assumption that the design development is for a nontraditional setting but an online collaborative environment (Sims & Jones, 2003). The model proposes four critical factors. The first stated by Sims and Jones (2002), “the instructional design development process must align with institutional expectation, contemporary pedagogies as well as available resources and skills” (p. 3). Technology has indeed open doors to a variety of delivery options, hence does affect the approaches of online course delivery and teaching methods. The next factor relates to the academic professional development. New instructors with a lack of online teaching experience will need on going support through scaffolding processes.
Scaffolding is a process where the instructor and learners can learn new concepts about the online environment through the support team. Herrington and Oliver (2001) stated that because

10 of the rapid implementation of learning management systems, increase growth of online learning as well as learner-centered environments, this has caused an increased need for scaffolding processes (as cited in Sims & Jones, 2002).
The third factor refers to the approach of team-based work where communication and understanding among team members takes place during the development process reinforcing group collaboration (Sims & Jones, 2002). With the ongoing growth of information, knowledge sharing through communication and collaboration plays an important role. Finally, the last factor involves incorporation of scaffolding support units for both academic instructors and staff where skills learned can help ensure success in confronting new challenging and learning paradigms
(Sims & Jones, 2002).
The 3PD model comprises of 3 phases (see Figure 3). Phase 1 known as pre-delivery mode involves the preparation of online teaching components. This includes planning teaching and learning strategies (learner-centered, experiential or situated), learning outcomes, lesson materials and resources. Each member of the team has specific roles (Sims & Jones, 2002).
Phase two, the enhancement mode is the delivery phase. During the delivery process, ongoing feedbacks and evaluation permits the opportunity for immediate enhancements to the learning environment, hence creating a scaffolding environment where participants can learn about the new processes. With the support through collaboration and communication from other team members including users (learners), the instructor gets to improve the learning environment in a proactive way (Sims, Dobbs & Hand, 2002). This is a great advantage of the proactive evaluation process because it can help take care of immediate concerns or problems while learning from the situation.

11
The educational designer is the major player in the development team while faculty and learners make up the other groups respectively. The educational designer (ED) is also responsible for giving educational and curriculum design guidance and advice and may have other managerial responsibilities. Prior entering into the third phase, the team prescribes changes and enhancements for subsequent delivery. Phase 3 then begins its maintenance mode with ongoing support and training that takes place over a long time where quality assurance is the key focus (Sims & Jones, 2003).
Comparisons and Contrasting Differences of the Three Models
The following section offers an account of observed similarities and differences in characteristics and qualities analyzed from the three model’s process description and presentation. In particular, the following were noted: (a) the use of visuals that fits the model definition and processes; (b) the general constructs (conventional form) for each model with its goals and purposes; (c) the evaluation processes, and (d) the role of team collaboration.
Use of Visuals to Represent Model Structure and Functions
Each model process or system description is well represented and supported with diagrams by each author (see Figures 1, 2 & 3). What makes the models different from each other is the layout for the individual element or component as it applies and relates to each other, represented through the symbolic illustrations. For example, in the Kemp model, the use of nonconnecting lines indicate that the components do not relate to each other, while the Dick and
Carey diagram shows the one-way linear application of the design stages. The 3PD model through the illustration of the vertical placements of all three phases represented the dynamic relationship of the model process (team collaboration and level of team influence) was also able to indicate the stages of its linear activity across (Phase 1-Phase2-Phase 3)

12
Conventional Form or Structure
Brant (2001), Gustafson and Branch (2002) as mentioned earlier indicated that Dick and
Carey model is based off the conventional core elements of the ADDIE model. The ADDIE model consisting of the components of learner analysis, design of instruction (including objectives and strategies), material development and media selection, course implementation, and evaluation is also found in Kemp and the 3PD model. ADDIE components are indicated in red text (see Figures 1, 2 & 3).
Next, each model utilizes at least one form of traditional linear (step-by step process) approach. The Dick & Carey and Kemp models are more comprehensive and detailed compared to the 3PD model. Critics have said that the step-by step prescription is extensive and takes too long to apply; at times, the process is too costly (Nickols, 2000) and may not be appropriate for specific instructional task (Botturi, Cantoni, Lepori & Tardini, in press; as cited in Gordon &
Zemke, 2000). Dick and Carey’s steps build on each other and one cannot proceed to another without the prior step. In addition, the design process cannot begin until instructional goals are established. Kemp’s model, however, containing all Dick and Carey’s steps is less prescriptive and practical as the designer can select any applicable element. It offers a more heuristic approach where the flexibility allows adaptation for technology situation such as online environments (Botturi et al). The 3PD model though linear in format (Phase 1 to Phase 3) as shown in Figure 3, has iterations within each scheduled phase as well (Sims & Jones, 2003). The valuable feature includes further enhancement of the traditional “development” functionality through its “evaluate/elaborate/enhance/maintain” process. The strategies “try-it” approach is also cost effective compared to the other models requiring a longer time for iteration process
(Sims & Jones, p. 16).

13
Evaluation Process
All three models offer the component of evaluation, but may vary in functionality and purposes. The two noted observations are, first, evaluations that relate to technology concerns; and second, evaluations that have different emphasis at different stages of the process.
Technology related issues. Based on Jones & Pallouci (1999) the most general form of an instructional system consist of there major components, “instructional objectives (input), delivery system (process), and learning outcomes (output)” (p. 3). Referring to examples of traditional ISD systems like Dick and Carey as well as Kemp’s model, they stated the following,
“Although there are many ISD models that include system evaluation as a major component, none of them adequately addresses the complexities and dimensions of the technology and how these may relate to learning outcomes” (p. 3). On the other hand, one of the 3PD model strategies relating to the evaluation, a proactive process infers that it is able address such issues. For example, during the phase of course implementation, concerns can be immediately taken care by technology-oriented as well as academic teams (Sims & Jones, 2003). As Sims, Dobbs and
Hands, (2002) further affirms that through the proactive evaluation process while addressing critical issues associated with learning resources and course delivery, can increase the chances of building effective educational outcomes.
Processes and emphasis differences. Morrison, Ross & Kemp offers an extensive prescription on the evaluation process. Within the evaluation process itself exist models of evaluation. For example, as indicated earlier, there are three stages within the formative evaluation process. This process takes place during the development phase (Morrison, Ross &
Kemp, 2004). Summative and confirmative evaluations are conducted at the end of the course instruction by team members. The Dick and Carey model emphasizes and utilizes the same

14 formative principles as Kemp’s model. The only difference is that the summative evaluation is a culminating process reviews instructional effectiveness conducted by someone not involved with the design process. In addition, Dick and Carey’s evaluation process does not have a confirmation (follow-up) evaluation.
The evaluation process works differently in the 3PD model; the process is known as the proactive evaluation. As stated by Sims and Jones (2003) formative feedbacks take place between instructor and students during the implementation of the course. The difference in comparison to the other two models is that, the proactive evaluation in Phase 2 (the implementation phase) offers valuable opportunities to enhance the quality of the learning environment. The proactive evaluation process also allows immediate trouble shooting to take place for possible problems that may arise during the progression of online activities.
The Role of Team Collaboration
Each model supports the concept of individual, team collaboration and project management concerns, but varies differently at different stages of the design process. Dick and
Carey’s teamwork concept relies on group (manager and specialists) collaboration of skills for the production of the final product. Sometimes the instructor as a stand-alone can also be the
“team” on condition that the instructor has all the skills needed for the project (Dick, Carey &
Carey, 2002). The Kemp model assumes that the designer has strong meta-cognitive and leadership skills to be able to manage and revise changes during the development process
(Botturi, Cantoni, Lepori & Tardini, in press; Morrison, Ross & Kemp, 2004). Morrison, Ross &
Kemp states that the four essential roles are the instructional designer, instructor, SME and evaluator each having specific skills and responsibilities. The 3PD model discusses the support of skills as well as developing instructors and students’ skills and knowledge though shared

15 communication and working relationships (see Figure 4). Team members consist of administrators, technicians, designers, instructors and as well as learners (Sims & Jones, 2003).
The inclusion of learners as well as focus on team (academic and technical staff) care and concerns contrast the 3PD model from the other models.
3PD Team model

Figure 5. 3PD Team Responsibilities (source from Sims & Jones, 2003).
Conclusion
Three instructional design models, namely, Dick and Carey, Kemp and the 3PD model for educational initiatives were discussed and presented in this paper. Each model offered valuable benefits and guidance applicable to the instructional design process depending upon the institution’s needs, purpose and setting. The characteristics and design for each model were compared and contrasted. Several similarities and differences were found during the analysis.

16
References

Alessi, S., & Trollip, S. (2001). Multimedia for learning, methods and development (3rd ed.).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Amory, A., Naicker, K., Vincent, J., & Adams, C. (1999). The use of computer games as an educational tool: identification of appropriate game types and game elements. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 30(4), 311. Retrieved Tuesday, April 11, 2006 from the Academic Search Premier database.
Battaiola, A. L., Elias, N. C., and Domingues, R. (2002). Edugraph: Software to teach computer graphics concepts. In Proceedings of the 15th Brazilian Symposium on Computer
Graphics and Image Processing. SIBGRAPI. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC,
427. Retrieved June 2, 2006, from http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/sibgrapi/2002/1846/00/18460427.pdf Beissner, K., Jonassen, D. H., & Yacci, M. (1993). Structural knowledge: Techniques for representing, conveying, and acquiring structural knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ, Hove and
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Belanger, F. & Jordan, D.H. (2000). Distance Learning Technology. Evaluation and
Implementing of Distance Learning: Technologies, Tools and Techniques. Pennsylvania:
Idea Group Publishing.
Bill, D. (1997). Popular theory supporting the use of computer simulation for experiential learning. Retrieved June 1, 2006, from http://www.centurionsys.com/rtcl57.html
Botturi, Cantoni, L., Lepori, B., & Tardini, S. (in press). Fast prototyping as a communication catalyst for e-Learning design. In M. Bullen & D. Janes (eds), Making the transition to eLearning: Strategies and issues. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Retrieved May 27, 2006, from http://www.elearninglab.org/docs/articoli/Fast_Prototyping.pdf Branch, R. M., & Gustafson, K. L. (1998). Re-visioning models of instructional development.
Retrieved May 26th, 2006, from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/24/a0/91.p df
Brandon, B. (2004). How do people learn? Some new ideas for e-learning designers. The eLearning Developers' Journal. Retrieve June 10, 2006, from http://www.elearningguild.com/pdf/2/060104-des.pdf Brandt, D. (2001). Information technology literacy: Task knowledge and mental models. Library
Trends, 50(1), 73. Retrieved Friday, May 26, 2006 from the MasterFILE Premier database. 17
Carswell, L. and Benyon, D. (1996). An adventure game approach to multimedia distance education. In Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Integrating Technology into
Computer Science Education. ACM Press, New York, NY, 122-124. Retrieved June 2,
2006, from http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/237466.237560
Clark, R. (2003). Building expertise (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: International Society for the
Performance Improvement.
Clark, D. (2000) Developing instruction or instructional design. Retrieved May 18, 2006, from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/development.html Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. (2001). The systematic design of instruction (5th ed.). Allyn &
Bacon.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Gagné, R., Wager, W., Golas, K., & Keller, J. (2005). Principles of instructional design (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.
Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic
Books.
Gillani, B. B. (2003). Learning theories and the design of e-learning environments. Lanham,
MD: University Press of America.
Gordon, J., & Zemke, R. (2000). The attack on ISD: Have we got instructional design all wrong?
[Electronic version]. Training, 43-53. Retrieved December 30, 2004, from XanEdu CoursePack database. Gustafson, K.L. & Branch, R.M. (2002a). Survey of instructional development models. (4th edition). Retrieved May 24, 2006, from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/22/2d/58.p df
Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002b). What is instructional design. In R. A. Reiser & J. V.
Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. Upper Saddle
River, N.J.: Pearson Education.
Jones, T., & Paolucci, R. (1999). Research framework and dimensions for evaluating the effectiveness of educational technology systems on learning outcomes. Journal of
Research on Computing in Education, 32(1), 17. Retrieved Saturday, May 27, 2006 from the Academic Search Premier database.
Kearsley, G. (n.d.). Conditions of learning (R. Gagne). Retrieved June 1st, 2006, from http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html 18
Mayer, R. H. (1999). Designing instruction for constructive learning. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.),
Instructional-design theories and models (Volume II): A new paradigm of instructional theory (pp.141-160). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2004). Designing effective instruction (4th ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Qureshi, E. (2004). Instructional design. Retrieved May 20, 2006, from http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/edfac/morton/instructional_design.htm#Reigeluths Roblyer, M. D. (2006). Integrating educational technology into teaching (4th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Rourke, L. & Anderson, T., (2002) Using web-based, group communication systems to support case study learning at a distance. The International Review of Research in Open and
Distance Learning [Online]. Retrieved May 8, 2006, from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/107/186 Royer, R. (2002). Supporting technology integration through action research. Clearing House,
75(5), 233. Retrieved May 07, 2006, from the Academic Search Premier database.
Ryder, M. (2006). Instructional design models. Retrieved May 20, 2006, from http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Merrill & Prentice Hall.
Siemens, G. (2002). Instructional design in elearning. Retrieved May 24, 2006, from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/InstructionalDesign.htm Sims, R. (1997). Interactivity: A forgotten art? Instructional Technology Research Online.
Retrieved May 12, 2006, from http://www.gsu.edu/~wwwitr/docs/interact/
Sims, R., Dobbs, G., & Hand, T. (2002). Enhancing quality in online learning: Scaffolding design and planning through proactive evaluation. Distance Education, 23 (2), 135-14
Sims, R., & Jones, D. (2003). Where practice informs theory: Reshaping instructional design for academic communities of practice in online teaching and learning. Information
Technology, Education and Society, 4(1), 3–20.
Sims, R. & Jones, D. (2002). Continuous improvement through shared understanding:
Reconceptualising instructional design for online learning. Retrieved May 21, 2006, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/auckland02/proceedings/papers/162.pdf
Smaldino, S.E., Rusell, J.D., Heinrich, R. , Molenda, M. (2005). Instructional technology and media for learning (8th ed). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Similar Documents

Premium Essay

Advanced Technologu

...The Applied Research Technologies Incorporation Strategic Analysis Tools Introduction of Case study:- The case study is about the Applied Research Technologies Incorporation, which is an emerging corporation in the field of technology. Company has built up its strength from mergers and acquisitions in the year of 1980 and 1990. As a result, in the year of 2006, the ART portfolio consist of 60 business units having major divisions of Industrial automation, Health care, HVAC (Heating ventilation and air conditioning) and Water management Division. Backbone of the business:- Innovative Culture:- The company success is based on the innovative environment and friendly culture for the entrepreneur mind people. The encouragement for innovative ideas can be idealized from the fact that company spends double money on supporting innovative ideas from the other industrial companies. This innovative culture comes from the top, because the CEO (David Hall) encourage employees to spend half day in a week in brainstorming, problem solving and experimenting which is referred as "tinker time". According to the CEO, he likes to have meetings of managers and innovators so that new ideas emerged. According to him, it is the fact that you will not succeed every time but we should celebrate worthy attempts even they are unsuccessful. Knowledge Sharing:- Knowledge dissemination and sharing is also a promising picture that reflects the cooperative culture of the company. Experts of different...

Words: 3864 - Pages: 16

Premium Essay

Innovations Report,

...Partnership for Development with AusAID and Quaker Service Australia Extract from Chapter 2: WATER INNOVATIONS WATER SUPPLY ANALYSIS COMMUNITY FEEDBACK ON WATER WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS TECHNOLOGY REVIEW RECOMMENDATIONS FURTHER WORKS ADDITIONAL INNOVATIVE OPTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION WASTE WATER TREATMENT ANALYSIS EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS TECHNOLOGY REVIEW RECOMMENDATIONS All households in Devikulam use water from the village tank for drinking and cooking. Households in the village have their own taps linked to the village supply, however households in the colony are not directly linked to the village supply, they use a common tap to attain suitable drinking water. Access to the village tap for drinking water is only available for one hour in the morning and one hour in the evening, thus water is collected in large vessels for daily use. Households in the colony also have common taps, linked to the water tank in the colony, however due to the quality of this water it is not suitable for drinking and is used only for washing and cleaning. Water Supply Analysis The development of a safe and reliable water supply system has vast economic, social and environmental benefits to the Devikulum community. Currently, the community water is supplied from three different bores, one of which has been identified as ‘saline’ by those living in the colony. Water from this bore is not used for human consumption but for other purposes such as washing...

Words: 2064 - Pages: 9

Premium Essay

Sources Of Water Essay

...Sources of water can be springs, wells, rivers, lakes, boreholes and streams. A water source should consistently yield a quantity of water sufficient to satisfy the requirements of the consumer. Streams and rivers Streams and rivers offer more reliable yields but may be susceptible to pollution and exhibit variable quality. The risk and extent of pollution depends on the catchment and the activities being undertaken on it. Small streams often exhibit variable quality because of the activities of man and animals within the catchment. The quality of surface waters may show a strong seasonal variability. Turbidity may be highest following periods of heavy rainfall. Water treatment will require a minimum of filtration and disinfection and should be designed for the worst expected raw water quality. A small reservoir or tank installed at the source can provide a period of settlement and reduce the variability in water quality. 2.2.3 Source protection Streams and rivers Pollution and natural variations in water quality are the main problems associated with stream and river sources that need to be considered when siting and constructing an intake. Water may be pumped directly from the stream or river or it may be collected from the ground in the...

Words: 820 - Pages: 4

Premium Essay

Water Utility Management Assignment

...Buys Student Number: 9763554 Presented to: Mr. Andrea Vushe Course name: Water Utility Management Course code: WUM410S Deadline: 7 October 2015 The Willingness to Pay Experiments: Estimating demand for piped water connections in Sri Lanka. This paper shows how Willingness to Pay surveys can be used to gauge household demand for improved network water and sanitation services when a private sector transaction is considered. The survey included approximately 1800 households in the year of 2003. Using multivariate regression, it showed that a complex combination of factors drives demand for service improvements. While poverty and costs are found to be key determinants of demand, they also found that location, self-provision, and perceptions matters as well, and that sub-sets of these factors matter differently for sub-samples of the population. The simulations show that in this particular environment in Sri Lanka, demand for piped water services is low, and that it is unlikely that under the present circumstances then, the goal of nearly universal piped water coverage was going to be achieved. Policy instruments, such as subsidization of connection fees, could be used to increase demand for piped water, but it is unclear whether the benefits of the use of such policies would outweigh the costs. Contingent Valuation (CV) has been used increasingly in developing countries for improvements in water and sanitation services in the past decades. However, applying CV in developing...

Words: 1007 - Pages: 5

Free Essay

Assessing Biological Stability of Drinking Water Without Disinfectant Residuals in a Full-Scale Water Supply System

...Assessing biological stability of drinking water without disinfectant residuals in a full-scale water supply system Frederik Hammes, Cordula Berger, Oliver Ko ̈ ster and Thomas Egli ABSTRACT Frederik Hammes (corresponding author) Cordula Berger Thomas Egli Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), U ̈ berlandstr. 133, CH-8600, Du ̈ bendorf, Switzerland Tel.: +41 44 823 5350; Fax: +41 44 823 5547 E-mail: frederik.hammes@eawag.ch ; www.eawag.ch Cordula Berger Oliver Ko ̈ ster Zu ̈ rich Water Supply (WVZ), Hardhof 9, P.O. Box 1179, CH-8021, Zu ̈ rich, Switzerland Thomas Egli Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zu ̈ rich, CH-8092, Zu ̈ rich, Switzerland Biological stability refers to the inability of drinking water to support microbial growth. This phenomenon was studied in a full-scale drinking water treatment and distribution system of the city of Zu ̈ rich (Switzerland). The system treats lake water with successive ozonation and biological filtration steps and distributes the water without any disinfectant residuals. Chemical and microbiological parameters, notably dissolved organic carbon (DOC), assimilable organic carbon (AOC), heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) and flow-cytometric total cell concentration (TCC), were measured over an 18-month period. We observed a direct correlation between changes in the TCC, DOC and AOC concentrations during treatment; an increase in cell concentration...

Words: 2616 - Pages: 11

Premium Essay

Essay On Water Quality

...Management of water quality addresses the problems that are related to water quality and water valuable uses. The control on water pollution depends on adequate treatment and elimination of wastewater (Krenkel at el, 1980). Goel (2006) refers to pollutant water giving a broader definition depending on the physical and chemical properties and biological characteristics causing harmful effects on human life according to required uses of water. Goel (2006) mentions the changes that occur in the natural water properties making it unfit for drinking or household, industrial and agricultural uses. In recent year, the challenges of water management on the world are very difficult to provide the fresh water and to improve the water quality...

Words: 2072 - Pages: 9

Premium Essay

The Applied Research Technologies Incorporation Strategic Analysis Tools

...The Applied Research Technologies Incorporation Strategic Analysis Tools Introduction of Case study:- The case study is about the Applied Research Technologies Incorporation, which is an emerging corporation in the field of technology. Company has built up its strength from mergers and acquisitions in the year of 1980 and 1990. As a result, in the year of 2006, the ART portfolio consist of 60 business units having major divisions of Industrial automation, Health care, HVAC (Heating ventilation and air conditioning) and Water management Division. Backbone of the business:- Innovative Culture:- The company success is based on the innovative environment and friendly culture for the entrepreneur mind people. The encouragement for innovative ideas can be idealized from the fact that company spends double money on supporting innovative ideas from the other industrial companies. This innovative culture comes from the top, because the CEO (David Hall) encourage employees to spend half day in a week in brainstorming, problem solving and experimenting which is referred as “tinker time”. According to the CEO, he likes to have meetings of managers and innovators so that new ideas emerged. According to him, it is the fact that you will not succeed every time but we should celebrate worthy attempts even they are unsuccessful. Knowledge Sharing:- Knowledge dissemination and sharing is also a promising picture that reflects the cooperative culture of the company. Experts of different...

Words: 3883 - Pages: 16

Premium Essay

Business Policy

...to be the premier national bottled water supplier by providing customers with unmatched quality, price, and service. Niagara was started in 1963 by Andrew Peykoff Sr. in Southern California. Niagara begin with five-gallon glass containers and then expanded in the 90’s to single-serve bottles which offers convenience for their customers. Niagara focus is on providing quality water at a good price. Niagara product innovations included bottle designs and production speed, thus making them the leading private water bottled company in the industry. Niagara is known for being leader in high quality water throughout the United States. Their 10 bottling facilities makes them the largest family-owned company in the water bottling industry. They sells directly to distributors and well-known big box chains. Niagara uses the uses purification and disinfecting techniques that allows them to produce safe drinking water. Their dedication, hard work, and consistency has made them the most successful water company in the United States (Niagarawater.com, 2016). In 2013, Niagara celebrated its 50th anniversary, which shows that they have been consistent with sales and product innovations. Sidel, a bottling equipment has helped Niagara achieve is competitive position by allowing them to bottle using a high-speed turnkey bottling line. While using Sidel, Niagara has remain sustainable and cost of production has become effective (Kaplan, 2014). SWOT ANALYSIS Strengths Availability at retails...

Words: 803 - Pages: 4

Premium Essay

Para

...Water Quality and Contamination Abstract In this experiment water quality and contamination of groundwater were investigated. First, I will observe the effects that many pollutants have on groundwater. I predict that in this experiment the oil and vinegar will create the largest quality of contamination to the water, while the laundry detergent will just create a bad smell to it. Considering the smells and thickness to these ingredients I think that it will cause the water quality to have a bad smell and cause the water to be very cloudy. Once filtering the contaminated water, the water will be clear and purified. Second, I will experiment water treatment and filtering. I predict that once the contaminated water is treated and filtered that it will leave me with little or no contamination in it. Then for the last experiment, I will determine the difference between bottled water and tap water to discover any contamination. I predict that the tap water will be the most contaminated and with the most chemicals in it, while the bottled waters; Dasani and Fiji will be completely filtered and free of any chemicals. Introduction There were three different steps to this investigation to determine the final hypothesis. The first experiment was the effects of groundwater contamination, second was water treatment and third was drinking water quality. There are a variety of portable sampling devices available for the collection of groundwater, however, each application has different...

Words: 296 - Pages: 2

Premium Essay

Water

...Causal Analysis: Bottled Water Causal Analysis: Bottled Water Ashlie Delaney Galen College of Nursing Bottled water has been around for centuries. While the aqueous solution in the bottle is imperative to your health, there are drawbacks to that liquid gold. And the package it rests in. Let us start of with a little history. One of the oldest discoveries of bottled water dates back to 1450 BC. There were murals painted the walls of ancient pharaohs tombs depicted canteens filled of the liquid. The Roman’s built one of the very first water transporting system. In 1767 water was first bottled in America under curative properties. Mineral water from New York was bottled commercially somewhere in the early 1800’s. In 1820, the popular Sarasota Springs sold their first bottled water. In the early times of commercially bottled water, it was marketed as a luxury drink to the wealthy and famous. It takes around 17 million barrels of oil to produce the plastic water bottles in The United States of America. Like bottled water, fossil fuels are harvested from locations around the world, processed, shipped and the consumed. Bottled water wastes a lot of fossil fuels. The burning of oil and other fossil fuels emits global warming pollution into the atmosphere. The price of bottled water is higher than the price of tap water, but in many instances, the water quality is the same. There is even a chance that an expensive bottle of water is just purified municipal tap water. The theory...

Words: 1101 - Pages: 5

Free Essay

Environmental Hisotry

...ENVIRONMENTAL LAW PRIVATE REMEDIES Civil Law * written codes which rely on statutory material, traditions * Judges has small role Common Law * Based on customs of the areas, precedents * Judge made law – cases decided by judge US * Mostly statutory, but judges are important * Interpret statues * Judge decides if not codified * Criminal – against State * Civil – all other Environmental Law not very effective if using private remedies PRIVATE REMEDIES | GOOD | BAD | Develop theory and needs | After the fact | Push legislation | Disorganized | Day in court | Costly | Money damages | Only personal damages | Tort Law - wrongful acts vs. contract law 1. Negligence a. Duty owned b. Unreasonable act c. Personal Injury d. Ex: pesticides 2. Trespass e. Tied to property rights f. Property invasion g. Ex: dam building (H2O invasion) 3. Nuisance h. Tied to unreasonable use interfering with another’s use i. Property use damaged j. Loss of livability k. Can’t move TO a nuisance l. Standing question i. cannot sue unless suffer special damage ii. different in kind, not just degree m. Ex: smoke, sewage treatment, hog farm, airport CIVIL REMEDIES 1. Monetary damages – personal things $ can fix 2. Injunctive relief – environmental, $ can’t replace, make do something a. Negative – DON’T...

Words: 7450 - Pages: 30

Premium Essay

Case Study of Applied Research Technologies Incorporation

...divisions of Industrial automation, Health care, HVAC (Heating ventilation and air conditioning) and Water management Division. Backbone of the business:- Innovative Culture:- The company success is based on the innovative environment and friendly culture for the entrepreneur mind people. The encouragement for innovative ideas can be idealized from the fact that company spends double money on supporting innovative ideas from the other industrial companies. This innovative culture comes from the top, because the CEO (David Hall) encourage employees to spend half day in a week in brainstorming, problem solving and experimenting which is referred as “tinker time”. According to the CEO, he likes to have meetings of managers and innovators so that new ideas emerged. According to him, it is the fact that you will not succeed every time but we should celebrate worthy attempts even they are unsuccessful. Knowledge Sharing:- Knowledge dissemination and sharing is also a promising picture that reflects the cooperative culture of the company. Experts of different department help each other in the successful completion of the project as well as problem solving. Funding to entrepreneurial ideas:- As discussed earlier, company serve significant amount of resources on innovative ideas. Whenever an idea comes which successfully complete the beta batch production and market potential analysis process also called “proof of concept”, quickly the resources are put behind the idea. CEO of the...

Words: 3886 - Pages: 16

Premium Essay

Lab Report

...Final Lab Report (Water Quality and Contamination) Student’s Name Course Name Institution Instructors Name Date of Submission Final Lab Report Abstract Establishing water quality was done by analyzing the chemical, physical and biological characteristics. This process helped determine safe water for human consumption in public in addition to making sure that humans are not affected by chemicals or disease causing organisms. This was done by analyzing 3 water samples which entailed Tap water, Fiji® bottled water and Dasani® bottled water. The goal of this research was to establish the effects of ground water contamination. This research necessitated hypothesizing on the capability of oil, vinegar and laundry detergent to pollute ground water in view of soil as a contributing filter of oil. Arising from the results obtained from the data analysis and observations from the experiments, conclusive evidence about bottled water was deduced and further research consideration is brought to light. Introduction Water quality was established by analyzing various characteristics which entail chemical, physical and biological. There are benchmarks of water quality set for every of these classes of characteristics. The benchmarks for water quality are advanced by (EPA) Environmental Protection Agency (2004) and (WHO) World Health Organization (2011). The quality of water taken in public was determined in the view of these benchmarks. Water quality research is significant due to...

Words: 1234 - Pages: 5

Premium Essay

Environmental Sciences

...1600730296 | [Title : Human Impact on the Water Quality of the Santa Cruz/San Juan River] | | Table of Contents | Page Number | Site Reports | | Site 1:: Reservoir Road, Santa Cruz, Trinidad | 2 | Site 2:Akal Trace, La Pastora, Santa Cruz, Trinidad | 3 | Site 3:Cantaro Extension Rd, Santa Cruz, Trinidad | 4 | Site 4:Mt Hololo Rd Santa Cruz, Trinidad | 5 | Lab Reports | | Lab 1:Dissolved Oxygen and Biological Oxygen Demand | 7 | Lab 2:Total Suspended Solids | 10 | Lab 3:Total Dissolved Solids | 12 | Lab 4:Macro Invertebrate Fauna | 14 | Final Report | | Problem Statement, Objectives | 17 | Methods of Data Collection | 18 | Literature Review | 19 | Presentation and Analysis of Data | 20 | Discussion of Findings | 22 | Conclusions | 23 | Recommendations | 23 | Bibliography | 24 | Site Number: 1 Date: 28/11/13 Site: Reservoir Road, Santa Cruz, Trinidad (Control site – Furthest Upstream) Objective(s): To investigate a section of the river with little or no human impact to use as a control site. Activities: The class arrived at site 1 around 9:15am. Observations of the riverbed, the water itself, human influences and both flora and fauna were made. Also the temperature, depth, width, turbidity and rate of flow of the water were measured. Water samples for later analysis of total suspended solids, total dissolved...

Words: 7190 - Pages: 29

Free Essay

Water Management

...NOTE ON 24x7 WATER SUPPLY THE CURRENT SITUATION IN INDIA Due to the rise in economy and the increase in migration to cities there is tremendous increase in water demand in recent years in urban areas and this is bound to grow in times to come. Piped water systems have been setup by the Government in most cities. The water supply in most Indian cities is intermittent i.e. a few hours per day, pressure is irregular, and the water is of questionable quality. No major Indian city has a 24 hour supply of water, with 4 to 5 hours of supply per day being the norm. State Governments in India are responsible for choosing urban tariff structures, and the result is wide variety in pricing practices. Currently in states where water and sanitation responsibilities have been legally transferred to ULBs, the reality has been that the ULBs have not become fully empowered, for instance: * The state retains responsibility for the appointment of key staff, who are often employees of centralized state organizations; * Decision making and implementation for capital expenditure remains largely under state control; * Key decisions on tariff remain at the state level; and * Arrangements for fiscal transfers between state and ULBs are complex, and do not provide incentives for improved financial performance. In effect, responsibility for the services is split between the ULB and the state. Inevitably, there is role confusion and a lack of overall accountability to the consumer. There...

Words: 2549 - Pages: 11