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Corporate Finance

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CONCEITOS CHAVE

• Assets – Activo
• Debts – Passivo
• Equity (Owners Eq.) – Capitais próprios
• Return – rendibilidade, rentabilidade ou rendabilidade
• Balance sheet - Balanço
• Income statement or profit & loss statement (P&L) - Demonstração de Resultados
• Accounting statement of cash flows - Demonstração de Fluxos de Caixa
• Net Profit or Net Income – Resultados Líquidos

1. A RENDIBILIDADE
CAP. III

1.1 Os resultados

EBTIDA – Earnings before taxes, interests, depreciations and amortizations

EBIT - Earnings before interests and taxes

EBT - Earnings before taxes (RAI - resultados antes de impostos)

1.2. ROA (Return on Assets)

Rendibilidade do activo, i.e. do negócio em si sem considerar como é que a empresa foi financiada.

O Gross Roa permite o estudo de rendibilidade do negócio sem necessitar de saber como a empresa é financiada. Os activos ou assets, são aqueles que deram origem ao resultado.

1.3. ROE (Return on Equity)

Quando falamos em Capitais Próprios, são os que foram investidos na empresa e isso não significa que sejam os que estão naquele momento investidos. O valor de uma empresa é diferente do seu valor contabilístico, regra geral as empresas valem mais.

Resultados transitados são decididos pelos accionistas e que não foram distribuídos.

Conceito de Capital Não Realizado.

1.3.1. Financial Leverage effect

Financial Leverage effect – Trata-se do efeito de um maior endividamento da empresa, no aumento da sua rendibilidade, i.e. se uma empresa se endividar mais, aumenta a rendibilidade dos seus Capitais Próprios, dentro de determinados limites e ceteris paribus.

Financial Leverage
Gross ROA > r = maior endividamento e maior ROE

Ex.
Invisto capital  ganho de 20%
Empréstimo de capital com custo de 10%  ganho de 10%
A rendibilidade do segundo caso é preferível porque é infinita, ao não gastar um cêntimo, tenho um ganho de 10%!

Ex.1 ROA, ROE & Financial Leverage

Considere os seguintes elementos relativos à empresa MNB:

Elementos de de N

Vendas 12,500
Margem Bruta 4,300
Fornecimentos e Serv. Ext. 850
Despesas com Pessoal 1,600
Outros Custos Operacionais 400
Amortizações 700
Custos Financeiros 450
Impostos s/ Lucros 60

Elementos do Balanço de N-1

Activo (Assets) 10,000
Passivo (Debt) 7,500
Capitais Próprios (Equity) 2,500

Informação adicional

Rendibilidade exigida pelos accionistas - 12%

a) Cálculo do ROE (c/ estrutura financeira inicial)
1. EBIT = 4.300 – 850 – 1.600-400-700 = 750
2. EBT = EBIT – Enc. Fin. = 750 – 450 = 300
3. Net Income = EBT – Enc. Fin. = 300 – 60 = 240

4. ROA = EBIT = 750 = 0,075 (7,5%) Assets 10.000

5. ROE = Net Income = 240 = 0,096 (9,6%) Equity 2.500

b) Poderá esta empresa beneficiar de Financial Leverage?

1. Situação inicial

Temos, r = custo dos capitais alheios r = custo médio do passivo = Enc. Financeiros = 450__ = 0,06 (6%) Passivo 7.500 e t = Impostos s/ lucros = 60 = 0,2 EBT 300

Então,

Gross ROA (7,5) > r (6%)

Em sequência,

ROE = [7,5 + (7,5 - 6)  7.500]  (1-0,2) = 9,6% 2.500
Quanto maior o endividamento maior a rendibilidade, para pequenas diferenças no custo médio do passivo ou r (ver 2ª equação do ROE).

2. Com estrutura financeira mais endividada

Temos,

Debt = 8.500 (7.500) Equity = 1.500

Então, ROE = [7,5 + (7,5 - 6)  8.500]  (1-0,2) = 12,8% (superior aos 9,6%) 1.500

Ou EBIT = 750 Enc. Fin.= 8.500  0,06 = (510) EBT = 240 Imp.s/lucros (20%) = (48) Net Income = 192
ROE = 192 = 0,128 = 12,8% (superior aos 9,6%) 1.500

Conclusão: houve financial leverage!

Limites do Financial Leverage effect (FL)

1º) Assumir que o custo médio do passivo é constante. O FL existirá apenas de uma forma realista se houver uma pequena variação na estrutura financeira.

Utilizando o Ex.1:

Alteração Ex.1
Debt 8.500 7.500
Equity 1.500 2.500

r = 6,75% 6%

ROE = [7,5+(7,5 - 6,75)  8.500 ]  (1 - 0,2) = 9,4% 1.500

Então,

ROE inicial = 9,6% > ROE alteração = 9,4% => resultado pior! NÃO EXISTIU FR!

2º) Se o perfil de risco da empresa não se alterar. O FL ignora o efeito do risco na rendibilidade dos capitais próprios.

Ex.

Empresa ABC
1ª situação 2ª situação (nível de risco maior)
Equity = 50% Equity= 25%
Debt = 50% Debt = 75%
ROE = 15% => +2% ROE = 17% (pressupondo que o FR funciona)

• O FR não informa sobre a relação rendibilidade / risco. • O FR só considera a rendibilidade nominal (e não a corrigida pelo risco)

3º) Ignora o valor da reserva de fundos que é utilizada com mais endividamento no financiamento de oportunidades futuras de investimento.

ROE = 12%

Que significado tem?
- Depende das alternativas de capital;
- Depende do sector;
- Depende do perfil de risco;

Deve utilizar-se o EVA (Economic Value Added) para responder à questão se a empresa está a criar ou a destruir valor.

1.4 WACC (Wheighted Average Cost of Capital)

WACC – custo médio ponderado do capital – representa a taxa de desconto que será utilizada para dscontar os cash flows futuros disponíveis para todos os investidores.

Ex.

Estrutura financeira da empresa

Elementos Peso Custo
Equity 60% 8%
Debt 40% 6% t 25%

WACC = 0,6  (1 – 0,25)  __0,4___ + 0,8  __0,6___ = 0,66 (6,6 %) (0,4+0,6) (0,4+0,6)

Efeito fiscal

Ex.

Estrutura financeira da empresa

Elementos Valor/ % Aumento do endividamento
EBIT 100 100
Enc. Fin. 50 60 +10
EBT 50 40
Imp.s/ luc.(25%) (12,5%) (10%)
Net Income 37,5 30 (7,5)

Efeito fiscal – benefício fiscal a empresa endividou-se apenas +10, mas perdeu apenas (7,5). Logo no cálculo do WACC (e outros indicadores) deve-se utilizar o (1- t).

1.5. NOPLAT (Net Operating Profit Less Adjusted Taxes)

Resultados independentemente do financiamento, i.e. os resultados caso a empresa fosse apenas financiada por capitais próprios.

Ex. B

EBIT = 750
EBT = 750
Imp.s/lucros (20%) = (150)
NOPLAT = 600

(cont.)

NOPLAT = 600
Cap. Investido = 10.000

WACC = 2.500_ x 12 + 0,75 x 6 x (1-0,2) = 6,6 % 10.000

% equity média ponderada custo médio do debt % de debt

WACC = 2.500_ x 12 + 0,75 x 6 x (1-0,2) = 6,6 % efeito fiscal (tax effect) 10.000 remuneração exigida pelos sócios custo do debt média ponderada do custo do equity

Custo dos capitais investidos (em valor) = 10.000 x 0,066 = 660

1.6. EVA – Economic Value Added

O EVA responde à questão se a empresa está a criar ou a destruir valor.

EVA (conceito base) – a empresa como agente de transformação, recebe capitais (próprios ou alheios) e vai comprar activos para gerar resultados/lucros. Então, uma empresa cria valor se conseguir gerar resultados superiores aos capitais investidos na mesma (incluindo os custos associados).

(cont.)

EVA = 600 – 660 = (60)

 Conclusão: EVA negativo, logo a empresa está a destruir valor!

1.7. ROIC – Return On Invested Capital

2. O EQUILIBRIO FINANCEIRO CAP. IV 2.1 Working Capital

Working Capital = capital investido no negócio, ou capital de exploração

Working Capital  agrega o conjunto das necessidades cíclicas ou renováveis de exploração e o conjunto dos recursos cíclicos de exploração

(+) Necessidades Cíclicas de Exploração:
– Clientes
Dinheiro investido nos clientes e q está na sua mão, ex.: vendas e crédito a clientes. Rubrica enganosa do balanço porque apesar de ser de curto prazo, ciclicamente vão surgindo novos clientes. – Stocks carácter permanente
Dinheiro investido em stocks. Rubrica cíclica. (-) Recursos Cíclicos de Exploração:
– Fornecedores
Dinheiro que se deve a fornecedores.

– Estado (IVA, Seg. Social, IRS)
Dinheiro que se deve ao estado.

Working capital = Necessidades – Recursos 
Temos que normalmente investir sempre com excepção do item de fornecedores, que paga com prazo mais alargado.

Ex.1 – empresa com WC positivo

Empresa com vendas mensais de 10.000
P.M.R. = 3 meses (recebe)
Stock = 0
Compras mensais = 10.000
P.M.P. = 1 mês (paga)

1 2 3 4 5
Recebimentos – – – 10.000 10.000
Pagamentos – (10.000) (10.000) (10.000) (10.000)
Saldo – (10.000) (10.000) – –

Saldo Acumulado – (10.000) (20.000) (20.000) (20.000)

Clientes = 10.000  3 meses = 30.000 montante na mão dos clientes
Fornecedores = (10.000)
WC = 30.000 (necessidades/clientes) – 10.000 (recursos/fornecedores) = 20.000 WC positivo
Working Capital = 20.000 = investimento na exploração e assim nunca mais vai recuperar!

Ex.2 – empresa com WC negativo

Empresa com vendas mensais de 10.000
P.M.R. = 1 mês (recebe)
Stock = 0
Compras mensais = 10.000
P.M.P. = 3 meses (paga)

1 2 3 4 5
Recebimentos – 10.000 10.000 10.000 10.000
Pagamentos – – – (10.000) (10.000)

Saldo – 10.000 10.000 – –
Saldo Acumulado – 10.000 20.000 20.000 20.000

WC negativo

Nota: esta situação é o que acontece na Grande Distribuição e é isso que faz crescer esse negócio rapidamente

CAP. IV, p. 95

Balanço e a regra do equilíbrio financeiro mínimo.

Activos de Longo Prazo
(Imobilizados)
Ex. 5.000 Capitais Próprios
Ex. 4.000

Passivo Médio
E de Longo Prazo
Ex. 2.000
Working Capital
Curto Prazo
Ex. 2.000 Empréstimos
Passivo de curto prazo (financiamento financeiro)
Ex. 1.000

Ou seja: esta empresa está a financiar activos de longo prazo com passivos de curto prazo. É o que acontece á maioria das empresas portuguesas.

Imobilizado + WC = Cap. Próprio + Passivo (Médio e Longo Prazo)

Lado positivo:
Qual a razão da necessidade da parcela de curto prazo?
- Menor custo
- Fácil acesso devido ao menor risco
- Prestação de menos garantias.
Lado negativo:
- Em si não tem mal se a empresa conseguir equilibrar activos e WC regularmente, mas existe maior exposição às políticas de crédito das instituições financeiras.

Dicotomia entre debt e capitais permanentes

Discussão:
Hoje em dia existem sistemas automatizados da política de concessão de crédito. O B. SANTANDER tem os sistemas mais apurados/sofisticados de determinação da concessão de crédito.

Existe maior imprevisibilidade da concessão de crédito por parte das empresas:

Ex.1: A crise do sub-prime. Mercados pouco regulados, existindo um efeito dominó na insolvabilidade.

Ex.2: O Long Term Capital Fund, que era um fundo gerido por 3 professores de Finanças, que apesar do conhecimento dos mercados que gerou a atracção de capitais, não conseguiram ser bem sucedidos.

Aula n.º2 10-Nov-07
Docente: Gomes Mota
Bibliografia:

Exemplo 2
A actividade da empresa NHG tem-se caracterizado por uma razoável estabilidade do seu volume de negócios e parâmetros de rendibilidade. Relativamente ao ano N apresenta os seguintes elementos:
• Volume de vendas: 750,000
• Margem bruta: 20% das vendas
• Outros custos: - 120,000
• Prazo médio de recebimento: 2 meses
• Prazo médio de pagamento: 1 mês
• Stock médio: 1 mês (em relação ao CMVC)
• No ano N o CMVC foi idêntico às compras (variação nula de stock)
• A empresa está sujeita a uma taxa de IVA de 20% (PMP - 2 meses)

Balanço em N
Imobilizado – 200,000 Capitais Próprios – 156,000
Stocks – 50,000 Passivo de longo prazo – 180,000
Clientes – 150,000 Fornecedores – 60,000 Estado (IVA) – 4,000

Para o ano N+1 prevê-se:
• Um crescimento de 5% nas vendas e na margem bruta
• Um aumento dos outros custos em 10,000
• Uma dilatação do prazo médio de recebimento em 1 mês
Analise o impacto financeiro decorrente da evolução do nível de actividade e da alteração do prazo de recebimentos.

Resolução

N N+1
VENDAS 750,000 750,000  1.05 = 787,500
CMVC 750,000  0.8 = 600,000 600,000  1.05 = 630,000
MARGEM BRUTA 750,000  0.2 = 150,000 150,000  1.05 = 157,500
EBITDA 150,000 – 120,000 = 30,000 157,500 – 130,000 = 27,500

WORKING CAPITAL N N+1
Clientes 150,000 787,500  1.2  3/12 = 236,250
Stocks 50,000 630,000  1/12 = 52,500 ou 50,000  1.05 = 52,500
Fornecedores (60,000) (630,000 – 50,000 + 52,500)  1.2  1/12 = (63,250)*
IVA (4000) (787,500 – 632,500)  0.2  2/12 = (5,167)** WC 136,000 220,333
ΔWC 0 84,333

* CMVC = Existencias Iniciais + Compras – Existencias Finais ** IVA Vendas (anual) = 787,500  0.2 = 157,500 IVA Compras (anual) = 632,500  0.2 = (126,500) 31,000
Temos um prazo de 2 meses para entregar ao estado o valor fraccionado do IVA, ou seja o montante correspondente a 2 meses:

IVA = 31,000  2 = 5,167 12

Balanço em N+1
Imobilizado – 200,000 Capitais Próprios – 156,000 + 27,500
Stocks – 52,500 Passivo de longo prazo – 180,000
Clientes – 236,250 Fornecedores – 63,250 Estado (IVA) – 5,167 Novos fundos 56,833 TOTAL – 488,750 TOTAL – 488,750

EBITDA – ΔWC = 27,500 – 84,333 = (56,833)

Análise fluxos financeiros

• Recebimentos = 945,000 - 236,250 + 150,000 = 858,750

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
 ------- -------   ------- -------   ------- -------   ------- -------   ------- -------   ------- -------   ------- ------- 
  ------- ------- 
-------   ------- ------- 

(N+1)
945,000 = 78,750 (valor recebido por mês) em 9 meses temos 78,750  9 = 708,750 12
(N)
750,000  1.2  2 meses = 150,000 12

 (N) + (N+1) = 150,000 + 708,750 = 858,750

• Pag. Fornecedores = 759,000 – 63,250 + 60,000 = (755,750)
Compras = 759,000
Fornecedores (N) = 60,000
Fornecedores (N+1) = (63,250)
(755,750)

• Pag. Out. Custos = 120,000 + 120,000  0.05 = (130,000)

• Pag. IVA = 31,000 – 5,167 + 4,000 = (29, 833)

IVA (N+1) = 31,000
IVA Balanço (N) = 4,000
IVA Balanço (N+1) = (5,167)
(29, 833)

Assim:
Recebimentos = 858,750
Pag. Fornecedores = (755,750)
Pag. Out. Custos = (130,000)
Pag. IVA = (29, 833)
Total = (56,833)

Dimensão do Financiamento

• Capital Próprio Vs Capital Alheio
• Fontes de Financiamento
• Análise de Taxa de Juro

Financiamento de 6 meses:
1 – Pedir financiamento de 6 meses  taxa de 4.5% (euribor)
2 – Pedir financiamento de 3 meses  3 meses  taxa de 4% (euribor)

(1 + 0.045  6/12) = (1 + 0.04  3/12)  (1 +   3/12)   (3,6) = 4.95%

A taxa máxima entre o mês 3 e 6 de modo a igualar os dois tipos de financiamento, quanto à modalidade de taxa fixa de 6 meses e de 3.

Conclusão: Em todos os exemplos a assumpção é válida desde que o financiamento esteja garantido nas mesmas condições nos 3m posteriores.

A decisão deverá ser tomada com base no conhecimento que se tem da informação da empresa e não do mercado, ou seja 3+3m será melhor se soubermos que a empresa terá melhores resultados passados 3m, porque lhe permitirão ter melhores condições de financiamento (spread no financiamento).

A Euribor (ou outro indexante não é manipulável) porque depende dos vários Bancos (não está sujeita a especulação). Atenção, isto é diferente da situação da política monetária do Banco Central, visto que este pode injectar mais moeda ou retirar moeda e alterar as taxas de juro.

3. VALOR FINANCEIRO DO TEMPO CAP. V do Livro
[NÃO SAI PARA O EXAME]

Ex. 1
Depósito = 100
Prazo 2 anos
Taxa de Juro = 10% ano

Ano 0 1 2
Valor 100 100 110
Juro 0 10 11
Capitalização 0 110 121

Capitalização = 100  (1 + 0.1)2 = 121

Processo de Capitalização  C  (1 + i)m

Ex. 2
Depósito = ?
Valor de capitalização = 140
Prazo 2 anos
Taxa de Juro = 10% ano

140 = C  (1 + 0.1)2  C = 115.7

Valor actual de perpetuidade = V/i

Ex.1
VA = 100 + 100 + ... + 100  lim VA = 100 = 1000 (1 + 0.1)1 (1 + 0.1)2 (1 + 0.1)n 0.1

4. INVESTIMENTOS CAP.VI do Livro

Análise de Investimentos (não financeiros) em activos reais (físicos):
- Imobilizado. P. ex.: terreno, instalação, equipamentos, trespasse, aquisição, patente, licença, etc.

Activos Reais  imobilizado

Investimentos

Critérios de Análise:

• Cash Flows (fluxos monetários). Qual o dinheiro que o projecto liberta ano após ano?

• Horizonte temporal de análise: o Vida útil esperada para a componente mais importante do investimento, que normalmente é a que tem maior valor num universo de várias componentes com tempos diferentes. o Liquidação dos activos (fim do projecto), no ano seguinte. Deve-se escolher a pior alternativa para o projecto, worst case scenario.

• Analisar o projecto a preços correntes ou preços constantes.

o Preços correntes (desvio padrão reduzido) vs. Preços constantes (o problema da inflação, porque é muito oscilante. Com preços constantes temos de calcular as taxas de juro reais.

Preços correntes  inflação variável  utilizado hoje largamente
Preços constantes  inflação zero  trabalha taxas de juros reais  não utilizado hoje.

Análise com duas etapas:
• 1ª - Financiamento por capitais próprios, para verificar o mérito de rendibilidade do projecto.
• 2ª - Financiamento concreto do projecto

Cálculo dos Cash Flows do Projecto

EBITDA - ΔWC

Ex.1

1 2 3
EBITDA 100 150
WC 30 40
ΔWC 30 10

No final do projecto terá que se receber o valor do WC, ou seja 40*.

CAPEX (capital expenditure) – 100 em dois anos ou seja 50 + 50  Val.Res. = 20
Imposto s/lucros – 20%

O valor residual é mais valia, logo paga imposto  20  (1 – 0.2) = 16

Cálculo

1 2 3
EBIT 100 - 50 150 - 50
Encoberto Financeiro --- ---
EBT 50 100
Imposto s/lucros – 20% (10) (20)
NOPLAT 40 80
NOPLAT + Amortização 40 + 50 80 + 50
ΔWC Inv./Desinv. em WC (30) (10) (40)* ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------
Cash-Flow 60 120

NOPLAT + Amortização = “Operational Cash Flow”

Parte-se do princípio que os impostos são pagos no próprio ano.
A vida útil do bem considerada e não a fiscal.
Se contabilizar as amortizações só na ópica fiscal, utilizando o máximo de amortização que o fisco permitir.

Custos perdidos  Sunk costs
Custos direccionados a despesas que se terão sempre desde que se tenha ou não de fazer um projecto.
Ex: custo de análise de viabilidade do projecto e que pode ou não vir a ser inviabilizado.

Optica Incremental

Considerar os valores do projecto afecto. Só se deve considerar valores que o projecto acrescenta.

Imagine-s

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...Corporate Finance Arguably, the role of a corporation's management is to increase the value of the firm to its shareholders while observing applicable laws and responsibilities. Corporate finance deals with the strategic financial issues associated with achieving this goal, such as how the corporation should raise and manage its capital, what investments the firm should make, what portion of profits should be returned to shareholders in the form of dividends, and whether it makes sense to merge with or acquire another firm. Balance Sheet Approach to Valuation If the role of management is to increase the shareholder value, then managers can make better decisions if they can predict the impact of those decisions on the firm's value. By observing the difference in the firm's equity value at different points in time, one can better evaluate the effectiveness of financial decisions. A rudimentary way of valuing the equity of a company is simply to take its balance sheet and subtract liabilities from assets to arrive at the equity value. However, this book value has little resemblance to the real value of the company. First, the assets are recorded at historical costs, which may be much greater than or much less their present market values. Second, assets such as patents, trademarks, loyal customers, and talented managers do not appear on the balance sheet but may have a significant impact on the firm's ability to generate future profits. So while the balance sheet method is simple...

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... the higher the firm’s fixed cost the greater its Operating Leverage. In Jacque’s words, this has to do with volatility of the top line. Those firms are usually highly automated, capital intensive, hire highly skilled individuals (read pay them huge salaries), and engage into costly R&D activities. Effects of Operating Leverage on Business Risk: (if all other things held constant) the higher a firm’s Operating Leverage, the higher its business risk. This is because in lower economical cycles, the firm will still be incurring its fixed cost. However, remember that higher risk usually commands for a higher return on investment. Financial leverage is the use of debt to finance the activities of a business. Financial risk is the additional risk put on the shareholder when management decides to finance with debt. The more debt a firm takes on, the more concentrated the business risk on the shareholder because the shareholder is a residual claimant. This results in a higher expected rate of return on the investment by the shareholder. Consequences of an increase in leverage (Leverage ↑): * Expected ROE ↑ * Stockholder risk ↑ * Standard deviation ↑ * Coefficient of variation ↑ 2) Cash-Flow statement and valuation: Natalia Cash-Flow Statement and valuation Cash-Flow Statement: * reflects firm’s sources and uses of cash during an accounting period; since not based * breaks cashflows down into three categories: * Cash-Flow from Operations (captures...

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Corporate Finance

...= 100,000 b. How many rights will be required to buy one share? 800,000 rights/100,000 new shares = 8 rights/share c. At what price will the stock sell when it goes ex-rights? New value = 800,000*$120+$10,000,000 = $106,000,000/900,000shares = $117.78 d. What is the value of 1 right? $120-$117.78=$2.22 2. A project has equipment cost of $210. It will have a life of 3 years. The cost will be depreciated straight-line to zero. The salvage value at the end of 3 years is $50. Cash sales will be $200 per year and cash costs will run $120 per year. The firm will also need to invest $70 in net working capital at time 0. The appropriate discount rate is 8% (use for all flows), and the corporate tax rate is 40%. (15 points) a. What is the value of the tax shield in each period from the investment in the project? T(D=.4*70=$28 b. What are the operating cash flows in years 1, 2, and 3? OCF=(200-120)(.6)+.4*70=$76 c. What is the NPV? CF0=-210, CF1=76, CF2=76, CF3=76+30+70=176, NPV=-$4.7574 d. What is the IRR? (Estimate if you do not have a financial calculator.) 7.18% 3. Oakdale Furniture Inc. has a beta coefficient of 0.7 and a required rate of return of 15 percent. The market risk premium is currently 5 percent. If Oakdale acquires new assets that increase its beta by 50 percent, what will be Oakdale’s new required rate of return? (5 points) 15%=Rf+0.7(5), Rf=11.5%, Rs =...

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...Question 1 | | 0.25 / 0.25 points | APV = NPV (without expansion option) + Value of the expansion option. | | 1) True | | | 2) False | Question 2 | | 0.25 / 0.25 points | The owner of a professional sports franchise, looking to get a new stadium, would benefit from a put option if the deal falls through. | | 1) True | | | 2) False | Question 3 | | 0.25 / 0.25 points | If you write a put option, you acquire the right to buy stock at a fixed strike price. | | 1) True | | | 2) False | Question 4 | | 0.25 / 0.25 points | Risk-neutral approach is an application of the certainty equivalent method. | | 1) True | | | 2) False | MCQs (Theoritical) (0.25 mark) | Question 5 | | 0 / 0.25 points | Everything else remaining the same, an increase in fixed costs: I) increases the break-even point based on NPV II) increases the accounting break-even point III) decreases the break-even point based on NPV IV) decreases the accounting break-even point | | 1)  | I and III only | | | | 2)  | III and IV only | | | | 3)  | II and III only | | | | 4)  | I and II only | | Question 6 | | 0.25 / 0.25 points | The Chief Financial Officer (CFO of a corporation oversees): | | 1)  | Treasurer's functions | | | | 2)  | Controller's functions | | | | 3)  | Both A and B | | | | 4)  | None of the above | | Question 7 | | 0.25 / 0.25 points | Costs associated with the conflicts of interest between...

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...Corporate Finance The role of the corporate finance team is to manage a companies money, and maximizing the companies value while minimizing the risk states Wetfeet website (n.a., 2012). A corporate finance department may have a treasurer, a controller or comptroller, risk manager, and internal auditors with assistants and analysts all working under the chief financial manager (Ring, 2004). Corporate finance positions can be found in all companies from small to large (Kochanek, 2008). Entry-level positions are usually in investing, cash management, payroll, accounts receivables, accounts payables, bookkeeping clerks and other paper processing (Ring, 2004; Wiley, 2015). One job commonly found in corporate finance is that of a financial analyst. According to monster.com, common duties of an entry level financial analyst may include; analyzing financial data, recommending specific investments, evaluating and assessing both current data and historical information, studying financial trends on a consistent basis, ducting regular evaluations of financial statements, preparing complex financial reports, meeting privately with investors, and explaining recommendations in details to companies and individuals. The website Wetfeet (n.a.,2012) says, financial analysts pore over spreadsheets that detail cash flow, profitability, and expenses. They look for ways to free up capital, increase profitability, and decrease expenses. If any department...

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...Continuing and Professional Studies Fundamentals of Corporate Finance New York University School of Continuing & Professional Studies Course #X51.9140 Spring 2011 James Berman 212.388.9873 jberman@jbglobal.com Description: In this introduction to corporate finance, emphasis is on utilizing long-term debt, preferred stock, common stock, and convertibles in the financial structure of a corporation. Learn to analyze methods of financing using internal and external funds. Topics include: financial management; corporate growth; business failures; return on investment; risk leverage; the time value of money; dividend policy; debt policy; and leasing. Instructor Biography: James Berman, the president and founder of JBGlobal.com LLC, a Registered Investment Advisory Firm, specializes in asset management for high-net-worth individuals and trusts. With over thirteen years of experience managing client portfolios, Mr. Berman is a professional analyst of financial vehicles, including equity and bond mutual funds, and is an expert in global investment, asset allocation and modern portfolio theory. As the president of JBGlobal LLC, the general partner of the JBGlobal Fund LP, Mr. Berman manages a global equities fund that invests in the United States, Europe and Asia. Mr. Berman is a faculty member in the Finance Department of the NYU School of Continuing and Professional Studies where he teaches corporate finance. He serves as sub-advisor to Eitan Ventures LLC, a venture...

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...Objectives Corporate finance in emerging markets is a complex field for managers and academics. Most of the models used in investments and corporate finance have been developed under the assumption of at least moderately efficient markets, but this assumption seems to be questionable when moving to less developed markets. Emerging markets are not efficient markets; they are characterized by higher information asymmetries, higher transaction costs, more concentrated ownership, lack of market development, relatively low market liquidity, etc. Additionally, there are relevant differences in terms of suitability for the use of standard corporate finance techniques in the context of small and medium private enterprises. The present survey examines capital budgeting, cost of capital, capital structure and dividend policy decision of the four firms namely Schmit telecom, Sanehwal fasteners, LPS limited and Bharathi Soap works. The study analyses the responses conditional on firm characteristics. It examines the relationship of the executives' response with firm size, profitability, risk, growth, CFO's education, and the sector. By testing whether responses differ across these characteristics, the study throws light on the implications of various finance theories concerning firm size, risk, and growth. The survey also given us the knowledge about practices followed by different companies depending on the sector in which they exist. Market position has also played significant role...

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Corporate Finance

...1.0 Introduction Capital markets are a major source of finance for large companies engaging in investment projects. Successful investment projects can bring tremendous returns to shareholders in the form of dividend payment and increased share value. However, the source of finance affects a company’s overall cost of capital and by extension its dividends to shareholders. This report addresses the importance of the capital market and the efficient market hypothesis theories. The various source of finance available to large companies and the related cost. As well as the importance of the dividend decision and its possible affect on the company’s share price. [pic] 2.0 The role and importance of capital markets and efficient market hypothesis (EMH) [pic] The Role and Importance of Capital Markets A capital market is a market for the trading of long term securities such as, but not limited to debt and equity securities. A capital market which includes bond markets and stock exchanges serves two major functions. Firstly, it acts as a primary market for issuing new equity and debt capital. This means that companies[1] who want to raise new financing for investment projects or business expansion can source funding via this market. Secondly, it also acts as a secondary market for trading (that is to say buying and selling) of existing securities. The secondary market also serves as a source of pricing information for the primary market. Capital markets provide important...

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Solution to Corporate Finance

...Chapter 7: Chapter 8: Chapter 9: Chapter 10: Chapter 11: Chapter 12: Chapter 13: Chapter 14: Chapter 15: Chapter 16: Appendix 16B: Chapter 17: Chapter 18: Chapter 19: Chapter 20: Chapter 21: Chapter 22: Chapter 23: Chapter 24: Chapter 25: Chapter 26: Chapter 27: Chapter 28: Chapter 29: Chapter 30: Chapter 31: Answers to End-of-Chapter Problems Accounting Statements and Cash Flow ................................................................... Financial Planning and Growth ............................................................................... Net Present Value .................................................................................................... Net Present Value: First Principles of Finance ........................................................ How to Value Bonds and Stocks ............................................................................. The Term Structure of Interest Rates, Spot Rates, and Yields to Maturity ............. Some Alternative Investment Rules......................................................................... Net Present Value and Capital Budgeting ............................................................... Risk Analysis, Real Options, and Capital Budgeting .............................................. Capital Market Theory: An Overview ..................................................................... Return and Risk: The Capital-Asset-Pricing Model (CAPM) ....................

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...Question 1 Coase, Ronald. (1937). The Nature of the Firm. Economica, 4(16), pp 386-405. I. How does the modern corporate firm emerge and why? According to Coase, firm is the system of relationships which comes into existence when the direction of resources is dependent on the entrepreneur. A modern corporate firm emerges when the entrepreneur of some sort begins to hire people. Some people prefer to be the leader while some prefer to be leaded. Individuals that prefer to work under direction of some other person would accept less in order to work under someone, and firms would emerge naturally from this. The hierarchical organization can simply be desired for its own sake. People might be willing to give up something so that they can direct others if the desire wasn’t to be controlled but to control, to exercise power over others. It means that they would be willing to pay others more than they could actually get under the price mechanism in order to be able to direct them. Also, firms might emerge if purchasers preferred commodities which are produced by firms to those not produced. However, transaction costs are involved in using the market. The price of the goods is actually lower than the cost of getting a goods or services through the market. Other necessary costs likes search & information costs, policing & enforcement costs, bargaining costs, and keeping trade secrets, can be added to the cost of procuring something from another party. This suggests that firms will...

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