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Disease and Man

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The impact of disease on Man

Introduction

Through the ages disease has always plagued man and the environment. A disease is basically impairment in the condition of an organism. This project touches the surface of the broad topic that is disease as well as suitable measures for keeping disease under control.

Table of Contents

Topic Page

Types of diseases 4

Treatment and Control 6

The role of vectors in disease transmission 9

Methods to control the stages in the life history of mosquitoes 13

The transmission and control of HIV/AIDS 14

The transmission and control of gonorrhea 16

The role of blood in defending the body against disease 18

Principle of immunization in controlling communicable diseases 20

The effects of drug abuse 22

Disease in plants and animals 26

Types of diseases

A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. The four main categories of disease are: pathogenic, deficiency, hereditary and psychological.

PATHOGENIC DISEASES

A pathogenic disease is caused by a pathogen or disease causing organism which lives on or inside an organism, known as the host, and causes it to be sick. This disease can be caused by parasites, bacteria, fungi and viruses. The pathogen can move from one organism to the next or infect the organism by:

* Water * Food * Dust particles * Direct contact * Contact with faeces * Animals called vectors

Examples of pathogenic diseases include: malaria and cholera.

DEFICIENCY DISEASES

A deficiency disease is caused by lack of some nutrient in the diet, or essential component for proper bodily functioning. This means that the individual is not getting some really important vitamin or mineral. This could arise from the insufficient digestion, absorption, consumption and utilization of particular nutrients. It can lead to severe consequences for growth, health, or proper bodily activities.

Examples of deficiency diseases are rickets- a deficiency of vitamin C and kwashiorkor- a deficiency of dietary protein. HEREDITARY DISEASES

Hereditary diseases or a genetic disorder is an illness caused by abnormalities in the genome of a person. They are heritable, meaning that they are passed down (inherited) from one generation to the next.

Examples of hereditary diseases are cystic fibrosis- a hereditary disease which affects the secretary glands. It mainly affects the lungs, liver, pancreas, intestines, sinuses and sex organs. Sickle cell- this is a hereditary disease which affects hemoglobin. It deforms red blood cells into a crescent or sickle shape.

PHYSIOLOGICAL DISEASES

Physiological diseases are caused when organs or the systems in the body fail or malfunction over a period of time causing illness.
Examples of physiological diseases are diabetes and asthma.

TREATMENT AND CONTROL

Type of disease | Treatment | Pathogenic Diseases | Antibiotics, rest and treatment for the symptoms presented by pathogenic diseases. Proper sanitation and other disease-avoidance measures, ranging from hand washing to vaccination.Prevent over-crowdingEducate personnel and consumers about their role in preventing contamination. Disease like malaria and dengue fever can be prevented by ridding breeding areas for mosquitoes which spread the disease. This includes stagnant water or other open liquids.Water -borne diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery, diphtheria and meningitis can avoided by ridden the area of liquids which are open to the environment. These areas harbor houseflies which transmit these diseases. | Deficiency Disease | Deficiency diseases can be controlled by eating a balanced diet which contains all the required nutrients and minerals in their proper portions according to the individual’s lifestyle should have.Dietary supplements for the deficient vitamin, mineral and/or nutrient the body needs. | Hereditary Disease | The treatment of hereditary diseases may be different based on what part or function of the biology it affects.Bone marrow transplantationEnzyme replacement therapyMetabolic manipulationGene replacement therapy is the most common form of gene therapy in which an unfavorably mutated gene is replaced with a desirably functional gene by inserting the same to a random location on the genomic infrastructure of the individual.
Stem cell therapies (which may include embryonic stem cell therapy and somatic stem cell therapy – where the stem cells for the latter being derived from either the bone marrow or from elsewhere in the body within its scope
Hereditary conditions including skin disorders allergies, organ abnormalities and issues of the immune system etc. may be treated by regulating lifestyle, diet, hygiene and habits.Situations where oxygen supply is reduced should be avoided. | Physiological Diseases | Physiological diseases such as diabetes can be treated b y educating on the importance of diet and exercise.A healthy diet, low in carbohydrates is necessary for keeping blood sugar levels under control.Exercising regularly can help reduce some of the risk which may arise from diabetes complications such as kidney failure.Insulin injection/tablet.Hypertension can be treated by eating a diet with foods low in salt, sugar and salt.A good exercise program is also key for lowering blood pressure over a long period. |

Table showing types of disease and their treatment and control.

The role of vectors in disease transmission

Vectors are organisms that spread diseases by providing a pathway for a pathogen to be transmitted between animals and humans or other animals. Normally, these transfer organisms provide this transport by the means of blood-sucking (ingest the bacteria/virus/parasite from the infected host during feeding and then inject it into another organism while feeding once again). The vector shows some immunity to the pathogen, allowing for the successful transport of the disease from one host (usually itself) to another. It is also quite common to find specific vector-disease relationships in nature - in other words, not every vector can carry every pathogen.

Life stages of a mosquito

 The mosquito egg

Eggs: It takes several days for the female mosquito to lay and develop their eggs. The eggs are laid one at a time and they float on the surface of the water.
For the Culex and Culista mosquito species the eggs are stuck together in rafts of a hundred or more eggs.
For the Anopheles and Cedes mosquito species they lay their eggs separately rather then make egg rafts.
For the Culex, Culiseta and Anopheles mosquito species they lay their eggs that will eventually be flooded with water. The period of the egg stage is largely dependent on the species and on environmental conditions however most eggs hatch into a larva normally with a 48 hour period.



The mosquito larvae

The larva phase: The larvae (larvae - plural) live in the water and come to the surface to breathe. All mosquito larvae shed their skin four times and grow larger after each molting. Most larvae float on the surface of the water and have siphon tubes for breathing and to hang from the surface of the water. The larvae changes into a pupa on the fourth molt.



The mosquito pupa

The pupa stage: This stage is a resting, non-feeding stage. This is the time where the mosquito turns into an adult. A similar process is where the caterpillar undergoes metamorphosis to become a butterfly. The adult is fully developed after around two days.

 The mosquito adult
The adult phase: Male mosquitoes generally emerge a few days before the female mosquito. The emerged adult mosquito rests on the surface of the water until its body and wings harden. The wings also have to spread out and properly dry before it is able to fly.

THE LIFE CYLE OF A MOSQUITO

Methods to control the stages in the life history of mosquitoes

* Remove stagnant water where mosquitoes can breed and identify and eliminate areas on property where water can accumulate. * Larvicides can be used which kills mosquito larvae. They can be Chemical: Sand granular insecticide Biological: BTI as well as Oil: Anti-malarial oil sprayed in drains. Other insecticides can be used like adulticides which kills adult mosquitoes; however these should be handled and disposed of carefully. * Commonly used methods to rid mosquito populations in large areas and are Thermal fogging and Misting.

* Changing water in flower vases and pet bowls regularly.

* Empty all standing water and water- holding container in container in the area

* Use methods which help to create movements on the surface of the water in ponds for example wind-mill aerators. These help to prevent mosquito breeding. * Trap mosquitoes by attracting them with lures like carbon dioxide, UV light, heat or octenol (a chemical which resembles human sweat) and then kills them. THE TRANSMISSION AND CONTROL OF AIDS/HIV

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which severely alters the immune system which greatly lowers the body’s resistance to infections and diseases and is transmitted through blood and other body fluids/secretions. It is important to keep in mind that AIDS develops from the HIV infection. HIV/AIDS can be transmitted by: * Blood or blood transfusions * Semen during sexual intercourse * Sharing a hypodermic needle of an infected person which would then mixes with the body fluids of another person. * An infected pregnant woman can also pass the virus to her baby through the placenta of breastfeeding. * Close contact between people with open wounds has also been known to pass on the virus. AIDS/HIV can be prevented by practicing the following: * Using a condom during sexual intercourse * Being in a monogamous sexual relationship * Being educated about the disease * Refrain from sharing needles * HIV positive mothers should avoid breastfeeding Methods of controlling AIDS/HIV

To date there is still no known cure for AIDS/HIV; there is however treatment options available for AIDS/HIV patients. Two of such procedures are * Antiretroviral Drugs (ARV’s) * Post-exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) Antiretroviral Drugs (ARV’s)
Antiretroviral drugs are medications used for the treatment of infection by retroviruses, primarily HIV. Different classes of antiretroviral drugs act at different stages of the HIV life cycle. They fight against the disease by slowing the rate at which it spreads around the body. Combinations of several different ARV’s are typically used because the HIV virus can quickly become accustomed to a single ARV.
Post-exposure Prophylaxis (PEP)
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) involves taking anti-HIV medications as soon as possible after you may have been exposed to the HIV virus to try to reduce the chance of becoming infected. It must be taken within 72 hours of coming in contact with the HIV virus to reduce the chances of becoming infected. PEP’s become less infected the longer you wait. THE TRANSMISSION AND CONTROL OF GONORRHOEA

Gonorrhea is a bacterial sexually transmitted disease which is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae that tends to attack the mucus membranes of the body. Gonorrhea can live in the anus, cervix, urethra, throat and, occasionally, the eyes. Gonorrhea can be transmitted by: * It can be transmitted during anal, vaginal and oral sex, and by mouth-to-anus contact (rimming).If they come into contact with infected semen or infected discharge from the vagina, throat or rectum. * Gonorrhea can be passed on from mother to baby during a vaginal delivery, and can cause infection in the baby’s eyes. * It can also be transmitted by sharing sex toys if they’re not washed or covered by a new condom each time they are used. * Infection in women can spread from the vagina to the rectum via vaginal fluids. Methods of controlling gonorrhea

Unlike HIV/AIDS gonorrhea can be cured with the right treatment. However it is becoming harder to treat some gonorrhea as drug resistant strains of gonorrhea are increasing. If there is bacterial resistance, you will need another antibiotic to cure the infection. Gonorrhea can usually be treated by: * A short course of antibiotics Antibiotics
A person who has a positive gonorrhea test may be treated with a short course of antibiotics as this is an effective cure. It is recommended for anyone who has had sexual contact in the past 60 days with a person diagnosed with gonorrhea. A newborn whose mother has gonorrhea at the time of delivery should be treated as well. If doses are missed or they do not take the full course of medicine, the gonorrhea infection may not be cured. Gonorrhea can be prevented by practicing the following: * Abstinence * Having one sexual partner * Using a condom during any type of sexual contact, including anal sex, oral sex or vaginal sex

THE ROLE OF BLOOD IN DEFENDING THE BODY AGAINST DISEASE Blood is the red fluid that circulates in our blood vessels. The main function of blood is to act as the body’s transport system, but it also has a major role in the body’s defense against infection and diseases. Blood defends the body against diseases with the help of the following: * Blood Clotting * Phagocytes * Natural Immunity Blood Clotting Blood clotting, or coagulation, is an important process that prevents excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. The skin acts as a physical barrier to the body, so when there are breaks such as cuts or sores, the body reacts to produce blood clots. It prevents further blood loss and causes the formation of fibrin, an insoluble fibrous protein which traps blood cells and plugs the gap. FLOW CHART SHOWING THE FORMATION OF FIBRIN

The clot prevents the entry of disease-causing organisms from breaking into the skin. There are thirteen blood-clotting factors involved in the clotting process. A flawed or imperfect blood-clotting factor is devastating to the blood clotting process and causes blood not to clot. Hemophilia is an example of this; it is a disease which causes continued bleeding due to the bloods inability to clot from missing blood-clotting factor.

Phagocyte If these organisms enter the body, white blood cells (phagocytes) move out of the blood and to the infected area. They are involved in a process known as phagocysis where lymphocytes identify foreign bacteria and secretes the appropriate antibody for them. These antibodies stick to the bacteria, causing them to clump together. There they engulf the organisms, killing them and removing them from the body before they can cause disease. Natural immunity Natural immunity does not require prior sensitization to an antigen. Natural immunity describes the pre-existing defense mechanism inherited from parents to offspring making them able to resist illnesses. in contrast to acquired immunity that develops over the course of one's life This form of immunity is resistance that one inherits from one's parents. It is improbable that someone without some form of natural immunity would be able to survive infancy. Most likely they would fall prey to disease. Natural immunity confers the ability to distinguish between self and non- self (foreign bodies like viruses) on an infant to some degree, and this allows the immune system to identify and fight threats. An immune system which lacks the ability to distinguish between self and non-self is expected to attack various important aspects of the body rather than harmful and hostile features. Because of natural immunity which ensures this is not a problem in healthy infants; their immune systems are already capable of differentiate self from non-self, of identifying threats, and of fighting a number of common illnesses.

Principle of immunization in controlling communicable diseases

A communicable disease is a disease which can spread from one person to another or from an animal to a person. The terms infectious and contagious are also used to describe communicable disease. Some common communicable disease includes: * The common cold * Pink eye * Rotavirus * Chicken Pox * Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD’S) ex. Gonorrhea

Immunization is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an agent/particular disease. The process works by stimulating the immune system, which is the natural disease-fighting system of the body. A healthy immune system is able to recognize invading bacteria and viruses and produce substances (antibodies) to destroy or disable them. The two types of immunization are passive immunization and active immunization and both types can occur by natural or artificial processes. Vaccination is an active form of immunization. Active immunization This refers to immunity produced by the body following exposure to antigens. The immune system will eventually create antibodies and other defenses against microorganisms which cause disease. When the immune comes in contact with these disease causing organisms it’s response against them can be very efficient. Our bodies have already become immune to them many childhood infections contracted in the past. This form of immunization can include: * Naturally acquired active immunity * Artificial active immunization Naturally acquired active immunity
Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response.

Artificial active immunization Artificial active immunization is where the microbe, or parts of it, is injected into the person before they are able to take it in naturally. Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains the antigen. A vaccine stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of the disease. Passive immunization Passive immunity is the transfer of pre-synthesized elements of the immune system in the form of ready-made antibodies, from one individual to another so that the body does not need to produce these elements itself. Antibodies are currently used for passive immunization. This method of immunization begins to work very quickly, but it is short lasting, because the antibodies are naturally broken down, and if there are no B cells to produce more antibodies, they will disappear. This form of immunization can include: * Naturally acquired passive immunity * Artificially acquired passive immunity Naturally acquired passive immunity Naturally acquired passive immunity occurs during pregnancy, in which certain antibodies are passed from the maternal into the fetal bloodstream and this helps to protect the fetus both before as well as shortly after childbirth.

Artificially acquired passive immunity
Artificially acquired passive immunity is a short-term immunization normally administered by the injection of antibodies, such as gamma globulin, that are not produced by the recipient's cells.

The effects of drug abuse

A drug is any substance which affects the way the body works. Drug abuse is the illegal misuse of drugs which have a negative impact. Some drugs which are commonly abused are: * Alcohol * Prescription drugs * Marijuana * Cocaine Some physiological effects of drug abuse: * Seizures, stroke, brain damage * Heart rate irregularities, heart attack * Respiratory problems such as lung cancer, emphysema and breathing problems * Kidney and liver damage * Contraction of HIV, hepatitis and other illnesses * Changes in appetite, body temperature and sleeping patterns * Abdominal pain, vomiting, constipation, diarrhea

Drug addiction not only affects the addict, but it also impacts negatively on the society. It erodes the social life of the addict, tearing apart his family, friendships and professional relationships.

Social effects of drug abuse include: * Financial issues * Relationships Financial issues The financial strain that drug abuse places on individuals can be devastating. The strong need that drug addicts commonly face becomes more important to them than their other financial responsibilities and the actual cost of buying drugs adds up fast and places a slow insidious drain on finances. Money that should go toward paying down debt goes toward buying drugs instead; accidents and higher insurance rates result in increased charges for buying everything from a new car to qualifying for a mortgage. Not only does it hurt the person suffering from the addiction but impacts the lives of spouse, parents and children for many years to come. Addicts unreasonably waste their money on drugs for a high which doesn’t last forever. This forms a cycle where they continue to repeat the same mistake of wasting money and threatens the stability of a sound financial future.

Relationships Close connections to the drug abuser are affected. Relationships become dysfunctional, as the co-dependent recognizes the effects of the drugs. Some of the different interpersonal relationships that drug addiction impacts include: * Friends * Family * Professional relationships * Marriage/Romantic relationships
Drug abusers put the substance they abuse before the relationships they maintain. The repercussions of addiction reverberate throughout the social, familial and vocational areas of the addict's life, with disastrous consequences.
Alienation from friends and family increases the addict's sense of hopelessness. Sometimes, the loss of supportive relationships is the final blow that pushes an addict to seek help. Other times, the addict attempts to cope by falling deeper into addiction. Substance-abusing parents serve as negative role models to children, who grow up with no positive examples upon which to base their own eventual parenting skills. The effects on the family can include: * Neglect * Substance abuser may be prone to dramatic mood swings and paranoia * Lack of affection within the home * Irrational anger * Physical violence * Verbal assaults * Domestic violence * Children who grow up believing that substance abuse is normal behavior * Sexual assaults * Traumatized children Economic effects of drug abuse include; * Lost human productivity * Impact in the workplace

Impact in the workplace

Substance abuse is taking a major toll on employers in terms of costs and productivity. Employees who are coping with substance abuse have increased health care expenses, and are more likely to be involved in a workplace accident. Employees with a drug or alcohol problem show a pattern of poor quality or quantity of work; problems with attendance; and problems related to interaction with customers or clients. Drugs and/or alcohol can lead to the following negative effects when it comes to how a workplace runs and operates: * Increased Rate of Absences * More Fatalities and Injuries * Loss of Productivity * Termination of Employment * Impaired Judgment and Decision-making * Poor Team Morale and Staff Relations * Unwanted Legal Complications All of these can have severe consequences when it comes to the future prospects of the individual involved, their fellow staff and the company’s success.

Disease in plants and animals

The implications faced by plants and animals depend on how severe and widespread the disease actually is. These implications can be classed as: * Social implications * Economic implications Social implications include: * Civil disorder * Reduced standard of living Civil disorder Civil disorder or civil unrest is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It may, therefore, be seen as encompassing a range of behaviors aimed at destroying or taking over the position of an established authority such as a government. Civil disturbance is typically a symptom of, and a form of protest against, major socio-political problems; the severity of the action coincides with public expression(s) of displeasure. Citizens not directly involved in a civil disorder may have their lives significantly disrupted. Their ability to work, enjoy recreation and in some cases, obtain necessities may be jeopardized. The mounting unease in Liberia, where many people already have died from the gruesome disease Ebola, has raise the specter of social unrest amid growing fear and frustration. Many victims are rioting and protesting resisting police authority in the process Reduced standard of living This refers to the level of wealth, comfort, material goods and necessities available to a certain socioeconomic class in a certain geographic area. It basically is how well or how poorly a person or group of people lives in terms of having their needs and wants met. The high cost of medicine and other necessities, needed to nurse a diseased person back to health can be extremely high. This may cause people living with disease to experience a low standard of living. This is particularly evident in people who suffer with lifelong diseases such as cancer. A low standard of living also conditions poor hygienic practices and environments which persists more disease. Economic implications include: * Negative effects on the livelihood of farmers * Food shortages Negative effects on the livelihood of farmers Livestock is important in supporting the livelihood of farmers. If a disease affects the crops of a farmer, the farmer will naturally lose out in terms of income. Disease can wipe out the income bringing crop, and the lack of crop may even cause malnutrition to animal like cattle, they could be face poverty when placed in a situation like this. Plant diseases can make the income generated by a farmer highly versatile, which is a negative point particularly considering the profession is a difficult one anyway. Economically, in an agricultural area incomes could drop and shops and businesses could face lower profits.

Food shortages
Diseases in both plants and animals could cause food shortages; smaller quantities of meats and edible crops will be produced. This may cause famine, which is the widespread scarcity of food. This has momentous economic impacts, as the drop in supply leads to a rise in the price of food. Some families may therefore be unable to afford basic items, particularly in poorer countries. This could lead to starvation and malnutrition and provides conditions unsuitable for recovery.

Bibliography Atwaroo-Ali, Linda., and Taylor, Dr Mike. Biology for CSEC Examinations.
J.Glasgow., C. Chinnery., G Jones and M Jones. CXC Biology Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. 2001.
Jackie, Liew."Methods of Control at Each Stage of The MosQuito Life Cycle" Prezi.18 September 2012. 5 August 2014
Roxy. "Types of Diseases, Treatment and Their Control Methods". Studymode. August 2011. 5 August 2014 Wordpress . August 20, 2014Social unrest.Retrieved 20 August 2014, fromhttps://theextinctionprotocol.wordpress.com/category/civilizations-unraveling/social-unrest/ http://www.medicinenet.com/drug_abuse/page3.htm http://www.healthyplace.com/addictions/drug-addiction/effects-of-drug-addiction-physical-and-psychological/ http://www.medicinenet.com/drug_abuse/page2.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_(medical) http://www.livestrong.com/article/88298-top-communicable-diseases/ http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/biology_of_infectious_disease/defenses_against_infection.html http://www.webmd.com/sexual-conditions/guide/gonorrhea-treatment-overview

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