...An Evolutionary Fork: Fossil Record Evidence of Humanity and Its Variation From the Primate The early history of humans (homo-sapiens) is a contentious and heavily debated subject in the scientific community. Exactly when and from which ancestry our species evolved is a topic of speculation that many disagree on. What most in the scientific community can almost unanimously agree on is that homo-sapiens did indeed evolve from lesser beings. There is no shortage of fossil record indicating evolution as a force in this world’s early progression. The real debate begins with when humans arrived in the fossil record themselves. The function of this essay will be to first designate which characteristics define and distinguish humans from other animals and in particular other primates. Second it will serve to discuss the earliest fossil records of humanity and their significance scientifically. These conclusions will seek to provide a viable definition for the above posed question of the evolutionary root of homo-sapiens. In order to determine when humans first began showing up in fossil records one must assign humans recognizable and unique characteristics that can distinguish them from other primates that may have been similar in appearance and structure to homo-sapiens’ early ancestors. Prior to that designation though, one must ascertain why the distinction must be made at all. Why must a clear distinction be made from other primates and not from early reptiles or other...
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...in 1992-1994. During this time the first Ardipithecus ramidus was discovered. Since then, White and his team have discovered over 100 fossil specimens of Ardipithecus ramidus. It is believed that the Ardipithecus ramidus species lived about 4.4 million years ago. The Ardipithecus ramidus has some ape-like features but it also has human features as well which include smaller diamond shaped canines and some evidence of upright walking. There is a possibility that it is a descendant from an earlier species named, Ardipithecus kadabba. The fossils collected were that of a female, which is known as “Ardi”. The partial skeleton of “Ardi” is combined of both human and other primate traits. Her pelvis was shorter than other apes which indicate she could have possible been able to walk bipedally and she had a grasping big toe for moving throughout trees. Based on the skeleton, scientists have predicted the average height of “Ardi” was 3ft 11inches and her weight was approximately 110lbs. Scientists believe that the Ardipithecus ramidus species were omnivores based on the enamel of their teeth. Australopithecus anamensis was discovered in 1994. The history of this species began in the year 1965 when a research team led by Bryan Peterson from Harvard University found what appeared to be a single arm bone of an early human at a site of Kanapoi in northern Kenya. Patterson was unable to identify what species it belonged to due to the lack of additional fossils. In 1994, paleoanthropologist...
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...thus far the search for early hominids outside of Africa has been pursed without success. For now we may assume that these early hominids did not stray to any meaningful degree, unlike earlier apes and later hominids. (Finch, 2011) Africa is said to be the motherland of all human beings along with the hominids that were before them. Some believe that as hominids reached the homo erectus stage they begun to populate the rest of the world and formed into homo sapiens through parallel evolution. While on the other hand there is a belief that hominids stayed in Africa up until the homo sapiens stage and populated the rest of the world because they were advanced enough to do so. It is uncountable evidence to support that all human life comes from Africa. The large debate is; the belief that hominids evolved in the continent Africa until they reached the homo sapiens stage versus the belief that hominids left Africa in the homo erects stage and walk out of Africa through parallel evolution and formed into the homo sapiens stage. Evolution took place in Africa for hominids up until the homo sapiens and at that point they were intelligent and well equipped enough to begin to walk out of Africa and populate the rest of the world. (Finch, 2011). There is no doubt that the hominids that existed early in history still exist to this day, but just in a different form. As times changes hominids evolve along with other life forms. Paleoanthropologists have found skulls and other bones...
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...Extinction of Homo Neanderthalis: How and Why Did it Happen? One of the debates that has raged among anthropologists for over a century is the issue of Homo neanderthalis – what are the circumstances of the extinction of this species? Over time a variety of hypotheses have been posited; some have been disproven, others remain on the table of debate. Many factors contribute to the unresolved nature of the problem, ranging from limited information, contradictory evidence, and an increasingly curious mystery regarding the gradual decline of the population while temporally coexistent with Homo sapiens. An interesting observation can be made about the peculiar way in which biological anthropologists have considered the development of their own species. The old maxim that it is nearly impossible to turn an objective eye towards one’s self is especially valid, even in this context. Historically, anthropologists have seen the development of Homo sapiens as something gradual and transformative. The presence of Homo neaderthalis throws a wrench into the quaint linearity of this way of thinking. The paleoanthropological record of the Neanderthals continues up to a certain point and their presumed extinction has always been troublesome and anthropologists continue to debate as to why they became extinct. There are several ideas competing for prominence, four of which being the major considerations. The first states that they entered into resource competition with Homo sapiens and lost...
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...Jade Finnecy 4th October 2012 The Evolution of Man In his 1871 book entitled The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, Charles Darwin speculated that fossils of the earliest humans and their immediate progenitors ultimately would be found somewhere in Africa. He based this on the fact that the natural range of our nearest living relatives, chimpanzees and gorillas, is limited to Africa. He concluded that we ultimately must have shared a now extinct common ancestor with those apes in Africa. This view was mostly rejected by the scientific world of the time (http://anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/australo_1.htm). It would be some 50 years and the unearthing of Australopithicus africanus in 1924, before advances would be made in understanding our ancestors. In 1974 an exciting discovery was made in the finding of ‘Lucy’ (Australopithecus afarensis) by Professor Johanson and his student Gray in northern Ethiopia. We discovered the most complete specimen of A afarensis ever found (Boyle and Senior 2008). They are one of the first of our ancestors to stand and walk upright on two legs, this is referred to as ‘bipedalism’. It is believed that A aferensis would not have walked straight legged as we do, though are more likely to have walked with bent knees and hips, not unlike chimps. Diagram sourced from http://humanorigins.si.edu Diagram sourced from http://humanorigins.si...
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... Evolution & NOS • As the common thread in biology, the topic of evolution can help students make sense of diverse biological concepts. 4 Common Misconception about Human Evolution – Man evolved from apes or chimps… chimps… – No, Chimpanzees and humans had a common and less specialized ancestor – Common Chimp = Pan troglodytes – Human = Homo sapiens 5 In the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin makes reference to human evolution only once when he writes “light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.” 6 2 It is of no surprise that much light or evidence has been gathered by paleoanthropologists – which include scientists who study human evolution – since Darwin’s book was first published in 1859. 7 In the last two years alone, both in science/research journals and in the public media, there have been numerous scientific articles, news reports, radio broadcasts, etc. describing further evidence of human or hominin (which include present day humans and their ancestors) evolution. The evidence collected ranges from new fossils being unearthed to new hominin species being described such as the discovery of the “Hobbit” scientific name: Homo floresiensis on the Indonesian island of Flores (Morwood, Sutikna, Roberts 2005). 8 The...
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...Homo erectus were very successful in creating cultural technologies that allowed them to adapt to new environmental opportunities. They were true pioneers in developing human culture and in expanding their geographic range beyond Africa to populate tropical and subtropical zones elsewhere in the Old World. This territorial expansion most likely began around 1.8-1.7 million years ago, coinciding with progressively cooler global temperatures. Surprisingly, however, Homo erectus remained little changed anatomically until about 800,000 years ago. After that time, there apparently were evolutionary developments in features of the head that would become characteristic of modern humans. By half a million years ago, some Homo erectus were able to move into the seasonally cold temperate zones of Asia and Europe. This migration was made possible by greater intelligence and new cultural technologies, probably including better hunting skills and the ability to create fire. Map of the likely Ultimate Range of Homo erectus with the Lake Turkana Region of East Africa highlighted Evolutionary Relationships The earliest Homo erectus were contemporaries of the late Homo habilis in East Africa for several hundred thousand years. This suggests that the immediate ancestor of Homo erectus was an early Homo habilis or possibly another yet to be discovered species of early humans. Homo erectus was a very successful human species, lasting at least 1.5 million years, though their numbers...
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...What is Anthropology??? • • • 20:41 Anthropology • Scientific Approach, OBJECTIVE • Study of Humankind- human groups • Seeks to produce useful GENERALIZATIONS about people and their BEHAVIORS • To arrive at an UNBIASED UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN DIVERSITY • Only scientific discipline that attempts to embrace an understanding of all of humanity • Helps us understand ourselves an others Anthropology Perspectives • Holistic Approach (broadest view) o To view things in the broadest possible contest o To cover the whole scope of humanity o To provide a total or composite view o Human culture as a system, functional whole, all parts relate o Biocultural Perspective Studies both the PHYSICAL and SOCIAL EX: kuru disease (neurological disease)- disease caused by culture, transmitted by mortuary practices • Cultural Relativism o To view the beliefs and customs of other peoples within the context of their culture not one’s own o Practice of not judging other cultures based on the standards of one’s own culture o ENDOCENTRISM Group centeredness Tendency to see ones own culture as the center of everything The measure or standard against which all other lifeways are evaluated Tendency to consider ones own culture as superior or better than all others o Anthropologists must be unbiased, objective o Involves an effort to remain unbiased in ones observations o Acknowledges that cultures are DIFFERENT, but NOT RANKED o No right or wrong cultures...
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...Biff Eddington Anthropology 4467 24 April 2011 What is life history theory? What is a primate life history pattern? What is the relationship between brain size and life history? Life history theory is a branch of biology that analyzes the selective forces that have managed the evolution of the schedule and duration of key events in an organism’s lifetime related to investments in growth, reproduction, and survivorship (Bogin, O’Rourke and Stinson 547). The reason that there are differences between major events in species related to growth, maintenance, and reproduction is because each species employs different evolutionary strategies to increase reproductive fitness. Each species has a unique life history; this is a pattern of how it distributes its finite energy between five different phases: Growth, development, raising its young, staying alive, and reproduction. The assumptions that underlie life history theory are not complicated, but are simple and impactful: There is limited time and there is limited energy, so this energy must be distributed among growth, reproduction, and survivorship recognizing the trade-offs that cannot be avoided. Primates have a unique life history pattern that is different from other orders of mammals. Relative to other mammals primates have: a longer gestation period, fewer offspring overall, more care given to each individual offspring, infants that are born developmentally advanced, a longer period of parental dependency, a strong...
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...Does Race Exist? * Posted 02.15.00 * NOVA The concept of race is one of the most intellectually and emotionally charged subjects, not only in society but in science as well. NOVA Online asked two leading anthropologists, Dr. Loring Brace of the University of Michigan and Dr. George Gill of the University of Wyoming, who fall on either side of the debate about whether race exists in biologic terms, to state their points of view. Regardless of where you stand on the issue, we think you will find their arguments well-reasoned and thought-provoking. Loring Brace and George Gill come down on different sides of the question Does race exist biologically? Read their viewpoints here. EnlargePhoto credit: © andipantz/iStockphoto AN ANTAGONIST'S PERSPECTIVE by C. Loring Brace I am going to start this essay with what may seem to many as an outrageous assertion: There is no such thing as a biological entity that warrants the term "race." The immediate reaction of most literate people is that this is obviously nonsense. The physician will retort, "What do you mean 'there is no such thing as race'? I see it in my practice everyday!" Jane Doe and John Roe will be equally incredulous. Note carefully, however, that my opening declaration did not claim that "there is no such thing as race." What I said is that there is no "biological entity that warrants the term 'race'." "You're splitting hairs," the reader may retort. "Stop playing verbal games and tell us what you really mean...
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...4.1 Answers Remembering 1 Helps you find what you want. 2 Types, subject and author. Understanding 3 a Function of item b Service it provides c Season or popularity d Year the car was made or the model (type) of car e Genre 4 Similarities: Branching and dichotomous keys start with one large group and slowly divides into smaller more defined groups. Each division is a choice. Differences: Branching keys offer two or more divisions at each branch, whereas dichotomous keys have only two choices at each branch. Applying 5 a beetle b butterfly c grasshopper d mosquito e rhino beetle f termite solider Analysing 6 a Herman b Ken c Eugene d Louisa e Jane 7 Xero 8 Student responses will vary. [pic] Evaluating 9 Student responses will vary. Creating 10 Student responses will vary. a How are all the lollies at the cinema different? b Why are boys’ names different? 11 Student responses will vary. [pic] 12 Student responses will vary. 13 Student responses will vary. 14 Student responses will vary. An example follows: 1 a short Chris b not short Go to 2 2 a male Ro b not male Go to 3 3 a brunette Marg b not brunette Jacinta 15 Student responses will vary. 16 Student responses will vary. Examples follow: a [pic] b 1 a Lives in water ...
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...Topic 12 – The Nature and Properties of Water Hydrosphere | The combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet; the liquid water component of the earth – includes atmospheric water vapor, ground water, lakes, rivers, polar icecaps, oceans * Oceans 87.54% * Ice caps 1.81% * Groundwater .63% * Everything else .02% | Condensation | The conversion of water from the vapor to the liquid state. When it occurs, the energy required to vaporize the water is released into the atmosphere. This is about 585 calories per gram of water at 20°C | Viscosity | A property of a substance to offer resistance to flow caused by internal friction | Latent heat | The quantity of heat gained or lost per unit of mass as a substance undergoes a change of state (such as liquid to solid) at a given temperature and pressure | Icecap | Ice mass that covers less than 50,000 km2 of land area | Dissolved solids | Cl, Na, SO4, Mg, Ca, K; Salinity is a measure of amount of dissolved material in water after correcting for gases and organic material | Dissolved gases | At the ocean/atmosphere interface, gases are added to seawater by diffusion and wave action. Gas composition at the ocean surface is in equilibrium with atmosphere. Gas composition changes with time and depth in the oceans | Hydrologic cycle | The cycle of water exchange among the atmosphere, land, and ocean through the processes of evaporation, precipitation, runoff, and subsurface percolation. Also...
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...2 Abstract: Based on the breathtaking and scenic film Baraka, directed by Mark Magidson, this essay examines what makes us human internally and externally. Drawing on articles consistent in humanity and compassion exploration, biological research, chimpanzee research and analysis, and a look at our distant Neanderthal ancestors, we can combine the crucial pieces of humanity to look at it as a whole. Baraka depicts not only diversity, but importance of religion, ritual, traditions, and culture in the world. At first, the film seems to be a jumbled mixture of images and non-verbal sounds, but in fact it is strategically linked and results in one final theme: Life. 3 For centuries, humans have made themselves superior over our predecessor: Earth. While science has proved that the earth,with its animals and nature, have existed long before we have, we continue to oversee its power and lose our humanity. Our humanity, in my opinion, is not what makes us human biologically, but rather internally and cognitively. According to the dictionary, humanity is described as "the quality of being humane" and followed by words such as compassion, brotherly love, understanding, sympathy, and consideration. Is humanity an instinct, something we are born with? Or is humanity learned, taught, and projected? There are many things that we can relate to being human. Biologically, the DNA that lies within the cells that make up our physical body can tell whether we...
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...NATURE OF MAN HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE IN 10 MODULES E. Kolawole Ogundowole, Ph.D., D.Sc. Professor & Head of Philosophy Department University of Lagos. Akoka, Lagos. Nigeria Correct Counsels Limited Research. Counselling. Publishing. Book Supply First published 2003 Correct Counsels Ltd. P. O. Box 53 Akoka, Lagos. C E. Kolawole Ogundowole, 2003 ISBN: 978 -37004 - 0 – 5 This book is copyright. All rights reserved under the Copyright La Enquiries should be addressed to the Publishers. Printed in Nigeria by: Mustard Press Enterprises 16, Ogundola Street Sungas-BAriga. PREFACE A few words about the overall objectives of the course is appropriate as a starting point. Historically, philosophy was the first form of theoretical knowledge. As a rational theoretical tool of comprehending the world, philosophy arose in ancient Greece in stiff battle with mythology and religious consciousness. It came out to lay the foundation for the evolvement of scientific consciousness and the emergence and development of the sciences - Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc. In an environment rife with various and varying superstitions and myths, the study of the History of Science and Philosophy of Science becomes crucial, lest science itself falls within the ambit of mythology and superstition and becomes another form of myth even in the hands of the tutored. The study of the History of Science...
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...Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin was a British Scientist who lived from 1809 to 1882. He laid down the foundation of modern evolutionary theory with his concept of the development of life through the slow working process of natural selection. Darwin started to make notes about this theory in 1836 and in 1838 he had arrived at a sketch of a theory of evolution through natural selection. It was not until 1858 that his theory was first published in a paper. Darwin’s theory states that as plants or animals spread to new areas, or as the conditions change different variations would be favored in different places. This would mean these variations would spread through the populations of the plants or animals. Over time this would finally lead to a development of new species. This theory was explained in the book ‘The Origin of Species’, which describes his studies on the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. He noticed that the species on the islands varied slightly from each island and were adapted to local conditions. The reaction to this theory was immediate. Biologists argued that Darwin could not prove his hypothesis. Others criticized his ideas of variation and how he could not prove how these variations came about or how they were passed on. This part of his theory was not answered until the birth of modern genetics in the early 20th century. In fact many scientists had doubts about this theory for 50-80 years. The most publicized attacks came from religious opponents who...
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