...million billion synapses, making it the most complex structure, natural or artificial, on earth.” Tim Green, Stephen F. Heinemann and Jim F. Gusella (from a paper in Neuron, 1998) Slide 3 Brain development. Slide 4 What we know about human brain? The human brain is the most complex of all biological systems. It is made of a hundred billion information processing cells called neurons. The neurons communicated with each other by making connections. This connections called synapses. It is estimated there are 60 trillion connections in the adult brain. It has about 200 000 neurons. Slide 5 Brain has right and a left hemispheres. They connected by a fiber bundle that leads to the two sides of the brain that connect to each other. Average human brain weighs about 2-3 pounds. If we will look inside of adult brain we will see two kinds of tissue: grey matter and white matter. It contains of the cell bodies of the neurons. We can see grey matter along the entire surface of brain. Thats the neocortex. Cortex the brain's outer layer, which is essentially our gray matter. The white matter consist other fiber that connect neurons into information processing networks. Each neuron extends a connecting fiber called axon. Axons covered with a fatty substance called mylan that gives the axons white color. It is like an insulation on the electrical wire making the connections signals between neurons fast and efficient. At the end of axons on connection sides called synapses. They allow...
Words: 2071 - Pages: 9
...ISSUE BRIEF November 2009 Understanding the Effects of Maltreatment on Brain Development What’s Inside: • How the Brain Develops This issue brief provides basic information on brain development and the effects of abuse and neglect on that development. The information is designed to help professionals understand the emotional, mental, and behavioral impact of early abuse and neglect in children who come to the attention of the child welfare system. • Effects of Maltreatment on Brain Development • Implications for Practice and Policy • Summary U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Administration for Children and Families Administration on Children, Youth and Families Children’s Bureau Child Welfare Information Gateway Children’s Bureau/ACYF 1250 Maryland Avenue, SW Eighth Floor Washington, DC 20024 800.394.3366 Email: info@childwelfare.gov www.childwelfare.gov Understanding the Effects of Maltreatment on Brain Development www.childwelfare.gov In recent years, there has been a surge of research into early brain development. New technologies, such as neuroimaging (e.g., magnetic resonance imaging or MRI), provide increased insight into how the brain develops and how early experiences affect that development. One area that has been receiving increasing research attention involves the effects of abuse and neglect on the developing brain, especially during infancy and early childhood. Much of this research is providing biological explanations for what practitioners...
Words: 8037 - Pages: 33
...CH 1 STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How does classical conditioning described by Pavlov differ from operant conditioning described by Skinner? (pages 2/3) -Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning in which a subject learns the relationship between two stimuli, or between a stimuli and a behavior. Pavlov studied and analyzed dog’s salivary secretions in response to food. He found he could elicit this salivation response reliable by administering a distinct auditory or visual stimulus that would signal anticipation of a subsequent food reward. Pavlov called with conditional reflexes, but if now known as classical conditioning or associative learning. -Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced, and weakened if it is punished. Operant conditioning results in behavior modification through positive reinforcement. Skinner’s favorite animal was a pigeon and skinner reasoned that when a hungry pigeon would receive a food reward, it might associate the food with the execution of a particular behavior and would repeat that behavior. 2. What contributions did Lorenz and von Frisch make to understanding social behavior? (Pages 4/5) -Lorenz formulated the idea of fixed action patterns of instinctive behaviors. Such stereotyped behaviors are set in motion by an innate releasing mechanism, which elicits a fixed sequence of behavioral events. (i.e. courtship and mating rituals, nest building for birds, ect) Lorenz...
Words: 5146 - Pages: 21
...4 Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission How Neurons Send and Receive Signals 4.1 4.2 4.3 ISBN 0-558-78571-9 Resting Membrane Potential Generation and Conduction of Postsynaptic Potentials Integration of Postsynaptic Potentials and Generation of Action Potentials Conduction of Action Potentials 4.5 4.6 4.7 Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Transmission of Signals among Neurons Neurotransmitters Pharmacology of Synaptic Transmission and Behavior 4.4 Biopsychology, Eighth Edition, by John P.J. Pinel. Published by Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. 76 Chapter 4 ■ Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission hapter 3 introduced you to the anatomy of neurons. This chapter introduces you to their function—how neurons conduct and transmit electrochemical signals through your nervous system. It begins with a description of how signals are generated in resting neurons; then, it follows the signals as they are conducted through neurons and transmitted across synapses to other neurons. It concludes with a discussion of how drugs are used to study the relation between synaptic transmission and behavior. “The Lizard,” a case study of a patient with Parkinson’s disease, Roberto Garcia d’Orta, will help you appreciate why a knowledge of neural conduction and synaptic transmission is an integral part of biopsychology. C The Lizard, a Case of Parkinson’s Disease “I have become a lizard,” he began. “A great lizard frozen in a dark...
Words: 14184 - Pages: 57
...Human and Machine Intelligence Essay I have been tasked with examining the root similarities and differences between human and machine intelligence. This is no small feat considering the copious amounts of scientific and philosophical information attributed to each, including fact, speculation, conviction, or otherwise. Defining intelligence alone has been historically subjected to great debate; add to that the hypotheticals of artificial intelligence and a whole new scale of complications become apparent. Through the course of this essay Team C will analyze and discuss a handful of key variables pertaining to biological (human or human-like) and mechanical intelligences, including their presumed natures and components, etc., and in the case of machines current achievements, ambitions, and the direction of development. With greater understanding of the elements of each, Team C can begin to compare and contrast the two with as much precision as possible, given the level of uncertainty. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has been a difficult goal to reach for scientists. Major milestones have been crossed on the road to true AI. According to Anthony Tongen, “In 1999, a group of scientists from Emory University and Georgia Tech made a calculator (called the “leechulator”) with neurons taken from leeches” (Tongen, 2003). This adaptation of biological components and mechanical material strikes major ground in the collective effort to reach true melding of flesh and machine. By 2010 Swedish...
Words: 1301 - Pages: 6
...Digital analog: Neuron: digital: spike or none; analog: number of spikes per second Sparsity: % of neurons fire in response to a stimulus How many objects a neuron respond: sparsity times total objects ANN: weight, more input more output : algorithm and representational Input times weight Not threshold to fire Turing test: computational Visual fields: left visual field: nasal left eye, temporal right eye, right hemisphere Right visual field: nasal right eye, temporal left eye Color blindness: missing cones; common: no L or M cone Cones not function at night One class of rods, see in the night Opponent processing: Red/green: (L-M): differences between those 2 cones/ if miss L, then can’t tell red from green Blue/yellow: (s-s+m/2) Explicit: conscious Episodic/semantic Implicit: skill memory LTP: stronger synaptic connection Long term: grow more receptors on post synapse anatomical Short term: amount of neurons Turing machine Single vs double dissociation Single: one manipulation Double: two manipulations Visual angle Grandmother cell a lot of cells respond for Halle Berry Do not respond only to Halle Berry Math: impossibly large number of neurons Only 100 images do not necessarily show that those cells only respond to one concept Size constancy: If no depth cue/ with out size constancy; then same visual angle same proximal size and same perceived size. s Alternative: different difficulties of those 2 tasks ...
Words: 4004 - Pages: 17
...& language Learning Objectives 7. Describe the locations & functions of the thalamus & hypothalamus 8. Identify the structures & functions of the midbrain & hindbrain 9. Describe the structure & function of the RAS 10. Describe the sensory & motor pathways 11. Describe the structure & function of the pyramidal & extrapyramidal motor tracts 12. Identify the structures of a spinal nerve and describe the neural pathways of a reflex arc. I. Structural Organization of the Brain A. Central Nervous System 1. Composed of the brain and spinal cord a. Receives input from sensory neurons and directs activity of motor neurons that innervate muscles and glands b. Association neurons integrate sensory information and help direct the appropriate response to maintain homeostasis and respond to the environment. Central Nervous System Gyrus Sulcus Corpus callosum Cerebrum Meninges Spinal cord Central canal Tentorium cerebelli Cerebellum B. Embryonic Development 1. From the ectoderm comes a groove that will become the neural tube around 20 days after conception. This will eventually become the CNS. 2. Between the neural tube and the developing epidermis, a neural crest forms. This will...
Words: 3831 - Pages: 16
...Nervous System 3.1 General Layout of the Nervous System 3.4 Spinal Cord 3.2 Cells of the Nervous System 3.5 Five Major Divisions of the Brain 3.3 Neuroanatomical Techniques and Directions 3.6 Major Structures of the Brain ISBN 0-558-78571-9 Biopsychology, Eighth Edition, by John P.J. Pinel. Published by Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. 3.1 ■ General Layout of the Nervous System I n order to understand what the brain does, it is first necessary to understand what it is—to know the names and locations of its major parts and how they are connected to one another. This chapter introduces you to these fundamentals of brain anatomy. Before you begin this chapter, I want to apologize for the lack of foresight displayed by early neuroanatomists in their choice of names for neuroanatomical structures— but, then, how could they have anticipated that Latin and Greek, universal languages of the educated in their day, would not be compulsory university fare in our time? To help you, I have provided the literal English meanings of many of the neuroanatomical terms, and I have kept this chapter as brief, clear, and to the point as possible, covering only the most important structures. The payoff for your effort will be a fundamental understanding of the structure of the human brain and a new vocabulary to discuss it. 51 Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system 3.1 General Layout of the ...
Words: 11288 - Pages: 46
...Garrett Kelly Dr. Tushup 7/17/13 Nancy C. Andreasen is an expert on psychiatric disorders and most importantly an expert on schizophrenia. In earlier years the symptoms of schizophrenia were thought to be in a single brain region. However, with more experts and more studies taking place on schizophrenia we are finding out that there are many areas in the brain that are affected by schizophrenia. Based on empirical data derived from both magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography, we have developed a model that implicates connectivity among nodes located in prefrontal regions, the thalamic nuclei, and the cerebellum(Andreasen, 1998). If there is a disruption in this circuitry it will produce cognitive dysmetria, which will lead to difficulty in prioritizing, processing, coordinating and responding to information. The study of neural mechanisms of schizophrenia has passed through three phases during the past several decades. The first phase was used to demonstrate that schizophrenia was a brain disease. This phase was supported primarily through the use of neuro-imaging techniques such as computerized tomography, which consistently showed that patients had diffuse nonspecific abnormalities such as prominent sulci or ventricular enlargement(Andreasen 1982,1990). The second phase drew on traditions of neurology and neuropsychology, it attempted to localize the anatomic abnormalities and relate specific manifestations of the illness to specific brain regions (Andreasen...
Words: 5342 - Pages: 22
...Term 1 topics (30% of the exam): • Skeleton • Muscles • Nervous System • The Brain Skeleton and Muscles • Skeletal system is all the bones in the body and the tissues that connect them • Average human has 206 bones • Bones: - Composed of living cells - Has protein called collagen, which makes it strong (Collagen: strong fibers) - Contain calcium sulphate and phosphorous which makes it hard - 2 types: compact bone (outer layer, dense and hard), spongy bone (inner layer, consist of fine struts of bone, forms the red bone marrow) • Cartilage (soft bone): - Firm but softer than bone, cartilage is rubbery while bone is firm - Has collagen but no mineral salts - Smooth slippery surface acts as a cushion, reduces friction • Function of bones: - Enables movement (eg: raising of arm, breathing movement in the ribs, chewing of the jaws) - Storage minerals - Support the body, keep it off the ground and keeps the body shape - Where blood production happens (red marrow of some bones such as vertebrae produce both red and white blood cells) - Protection (brain-skull/cranium, heart, lungs and liver-rib cage, spinal cord-vertebrae) • Structure of the skeleton (just important ones): 1. Vertebral column - Also called backbone or spine or spinal column - Consists of 33 individual vertebrae - Cartilage allows the...
Words: 1867 - Pages: 8
...processes, stores, and organizes information into learning has been studied for centuries—yet it has only been in the past few hundred years that true breakthroughs in the cognitive sciences has been observed. Arguably one of the most essential discoveries in brain function lies within the compartmentalization of mental, emotional, logistical, motor, and cognitive capabilities, this process began in earnest with the discovery of Broca's Area through the diagnosis of a particular symptom of trauma—Broca's aphasia. To understand the overall picture of this convoluted problem we must first examine the historical foundations through which aphasia was diagnosed. From there we will attempt to dissect the process of language evolution and attempt to recognize where aphasia fits within the equation of language structure. From structure, we must then look even closer to the actual biology of the neural network to examine how learning and language develops in order to assist in the therapy of aphasics the world over. Broca's area is a portion of the brain in the left temporal lobe which has been attributed to the process of speech. The term “aphasia” is derived from the Greek, aphatos, meaning “without speech”; although not all forms of aphasia silence the aphasic. As opposed to a learning disability which one grows up with, nor with diseases such as Alzheimer’s, aphasias are typified by beginning very suddenly with a trauma to particular portions of the brain. Thus and aphasia is...
Words: 4125 - Pages: 17
...In mouse models of HD, widespread electrophysiologic dysfunction at the neuronal level is observed. The MSNs demonstrate a depolarized resting membrane potential. This induces hyper-excitability of the depolarization dependent NMDA receptor in response to glutamate. The overactive cells create an energy sink that may lead to cellular death (Rebec, 2006). Similar findings are noted in cortical pyramidal cells. As the disease progresses, the overactive cortico-striatal pathway eventually becomes less active and cortical synaptic inputs are lost (Cepeda,...
Words: 3175 - Pages: 13
...THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The nervous system allows the animal to quickly detect, communicate and co-ordinate information about its external and internal environment so it can make efficient appropriate responses for survival and/or reproduction. The two major parts of our nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is made of the brain and spinal cord. The cranial nerves, spinal nerves and ganglia make up the PNS. The cranial nerves connect to the brain. The cranial and spinal nerves contain the axons (fibres) of sensory and motor nerve cells. Nerve cells areas are also known as neurons. Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system. They carry information or impulses as electrical signals from one place to another in the body. There are 3 types of neurons: Sensory Neurons- Sensory neurons carry electrical signals (impulses) from receptors or sense organs to the CNS. Sensory neurons are also called afferent neurons. The cell body of sensory neurons is outside the CNS in ganglia. Motor Neurons- Motor Neurons Carry Impulses From The CNS To Effector Organs Motor Neurons Are Also Called Efferent Neurons. The Cell Bodies Of Motor Neurons Are Inside The CNS. Interneurons- These are also called intermediate, relay, or associative neurons. They carry information between sensory and motor neurons. They are found in the CNS. TOP The Structure of Neurons A Neuron consists of THREE MAIN PARTS: A. CELL...
Words: 50148 - Pages: 201
...Understanding the Gift of Consciousness 2008 Timothy Lynch COMP 111 5/14/2008 The brain is the most complex and most fundamental of all the human organs. It is the essence of life. It is the vehicle through which man perceives reality, experiences, interprets his body’s sensory information, and coordinates all communication through billions of neural connections to various organs and systems, regulating and maintaining homeostasis (processes for maintaining internal stability). One’s experiences of life, their acquired skills, and the lessons learned are contained within a brain’s wrinkled, corrugated, and almost alien structures as memories. Two main categories of memory exist independently and simultaneously, short-term and long-term. Short-term, also known as working memory, is the mind’s way of temporarily storing any relevant information and task-specific data. There are at least two varieties of Short-term memory. One of the memory types is called by the name ‘phonological loop.’ This is how your brain stores linguistically encoded information for short periods of time (only seconds). The other is the visuospatial sketchpad, the mind’s way of maintaining, its visuospatial relationship(s) for the same short time as the phonological loop.(Foster, 972). The alternative memory format is Long-term or, declarative memory. The three inherent and pre-determined protocols the brain uses to remain functioning to translate a person’s experiences as this...
Words: 7410 - Pages: 30
...The Need for Psychological Science a) Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias i. Hindsight bias = Something has happened makes it seem inevitable ii. Not because common sense is usually wrong, but because common sense more easily describes what has happened than what will happen b) Overconfidence iii. We tend to think we know more than we do c) The Scientific Attitude iv. Curiosity 1. Empirical approach v. Skepticism = persistently asking two questions: What do you mean? How do you know? 2. Scientific attitude: being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible vi. Humility = an awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives d) Critical Thinking ii. How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions? e) The Scientific Method vii. A scientific theory explains through an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviour or events. viii. Hypotheses ix. We should be aware that it can bias subjective observations x. Operational functions = a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test xi. Replicate – repeat xii. Finally – organizepredictionsrevised theory xiii. We can test our hypotheses and refine our theories...
Words: 4656 - Pages: 19
