Instructional and Expressive Educational Objectives
When it comes to curriculum issues and planning, educational objectives are a central theme; but perspectives vary on how they should be formulated. This paper seeks to examine the concept of “educational objectives”; to distinguish between two types of objectives- “instructional” and “expressive”; and to justify the use of both types of educational objectives in curriculum development, from both a theoretical and practical perspective. The formulation and use of instructional and expressive objectives have implications for the selection of learning activities and evaluation; and identifying the aims and objectives of a course of study is very important to determining how they are used in curriculum development.
Many theorists have sought to clarify, classify and specify the manner in which objectives should be formulated and the characteristics they should have once developed, (Eisner, 2005). Educational objectives are based on individual values, and therefore what may seem important to some educators may not be seen as important to others (Eisner, 2005); however, it is a conclusive fact that educational objectives are important for curriculum development. Tyler (2010) states that by outlining educational objectives, “the curriculum-maker has the most useful set of criteria for selecting content, for suggesting learning activities, [and] for deciding on the kind of teaching procedures to follow” (p. 62). Gagne reiterates, “the central importance of defining educational objectives is [to make] possible the basic distinction between content and method” (Gagne, 1967 p. 21).
Despite the undeniable fact that educational objectives are “a boon to teaching, curriculum-making and educational planning” (Eisner, 2005 p. 25); perspectives vary on how they should be specified, since values vary- research done by one set of educators may be deemed insignificant by some, while highly regarded by others. Eisner (2005) differentiated between two types of educational objectives: instructional objectives and expressive objectives; these were born of a concern to develop skills in already available cultural tools, while also helping students to modify and expand these tools to remain culturally viable.
Instructional objectives “specify unambiguously the particular behaviour (skill or item of knowledge, etc.) the student is to acquire after having completed one or more learning activities” (Eisner, 2005 p. 33). They are used in a predictive model of curriculum development, i.e., one in which learning activities are based on intended outcomes. In this model, evaluation is based on the extent to which objectives are achieved; and modification to objective, instructional method or curriculum content may be done in the event that objectives are not satisfactorily met (Eisner, 2005).
Instructional objectives allow the teacher, and ideally the student, to focus on acquiring a specific set of behaviours, and since objectives are clearly stated, the teacher is able to measure achievement. Verbs such as identify, differentiate, solve, recite, compare, contrast and construct are used. Mager (1962) identifies effective instructional objectives as meeting three standards: they describe performance (what the student should be able to do), conditions (under what conditions it will be learnt) and criterion (how performance will be evaluated). Eisner (2005) points out that as long as all students are of the same developmental stage, and curriculum and instruction are effective, outcomes will be consistent, “if not at the identical point in time, at some point during the school program” (Eisner, 2005 p. 34). A curriculum based solely on instructional objectives is essentialist, since the focus is on knowledge acquisition only, for the purpose of evaluation and assessment.
Expressive objectives, on the other hand, identify learning situations but do not specify what must be learnt. They invite exploration and inquiry of those aspects that may be interesting or important to the individual; and do not desire homogeneity of response, but diversity (Eisner, 2005). Expressive objectives describe the learning situation, the problem and the task; but do not specify what must be learnt from either one, which makes it evocative, as opposed to instructional objectives which are prescriptive. Eisner (2005 p. 34) states,
“The expressive objective is intended to serve as a theme around which skills and understandings learned earlier can be brought to bear, but through which those skills and understandings can be expanded, elaborated, and made idiosyncratic”.
In this way, meanings become personalized, and students produce theoretical and qualitative work as diverse as themselves. A curriculum that incorporates expressive objectives is progressivist, since it allows students to modify and reconstruct their knowledge.
Since expressive objectives are not predictive, they are not evaluated as instructional objectives are, where one common criterion is applied. Instead, Eisner (2005) states that reflection must be done by the critic to “reveal uniqueness and significance” (p. 34). In fact, he says that what is learnt may be just as much a surprise to the students themselves as the teacher! Some verbs used to describe expressive objectives are discuss, interpret, examine and appraise. Whereas instructional objectives are specific, measurable, short term and observable; expressive objectives are general, unquantifiable, long term and not easily observable. Both types of objectives however, are integral in curriculum development; Eisner (2005) refers to them as the “rhythm of the curriculum”. Instructional objectives deal with acquisition of the known- “they embody the code and skills that culture has to provide and which make inquiry possible” (Eisner, 2005 p. 35). Expressive objectives emphasize expansion, modification and reconstruction of the known. Evaluating instructional objectives are based on prediction; while evaluation of expressive objectives emerge during the learning activity- one emphasizes the product while the other, the process. Also, while instructional objectives attend to the cognitive and psychomotor domains, expressive objectives attend to the affective domain. Both types of objectives are an important part of curriculum planning, but due to their contrasting natures, their use in teaching is distinctive- curriculum developers must consider issues such as subject matter, type of learning and types of students in determining how they are used in the curriculum. Expressive objectives are easier and more frequently used by some teachers who are attracted to the fact that creating potentially rich learning encounters is easier than specifying instructional objectives; while others may find it easier to use instructional objectives; and again, it is important to note that the subject matter plays a significant role- nomothetic versus ideographic (Eisner, 2005).
The suitability of emphasizing one type of objective over the other depends on the intended outcomes. Subjects such as mathematics would require a dominant emphasis on instructional objectives; and subjects such as art and craft would require a dominant emphasis on expressive objectives. This is because mathematics is governed by laws (nomothetic), and therefore the intended outcome is uniformity of response; but in art and craft, when themes are presented, outcomes are not easily specified or determinable (ideographic). For the purpose of this paper, I will seek to illustrate the suitability of both instructional and expressive objectives to the teaching of Caribbean History.
Caribbean History is one of those subjects where, I believe, both instructional and expressive objectives can be married to produce effective instruction. Eisner (2005) states that a curriculum can be developed that alternates objectives. The 2010 CXC curriculum outlines a rationale for the teaching Caribbean History thus: “History as a discipline has three aspects - its content, its organising principles and its methods of enquiry” (p. 5). Bear in mind that content is predictable; interpretation is not. The document further states that
“The thematic approach has been adopted because it lends itself to detailed treatment of the type that allows the student to practise the various skills of the historian. However, by grouping themes and by requiring students to study an overview, a core of topics, the syllabus seeks to maintain chronology as an important aspect of the study of history” (Caribbean Examinations Council, 2010).
In teaching history, a foundation must be built based on instructional objectives. These instructional objectives would require knowledge of dates and events and chronology. The aims of the syllabus, in chronological order are firstly, knowledge and comprehension, and secondly, use of knowledge, enquiry and communication (CXC, 2010). When instructional objectives are met, students are encouraged to “raise questions, formulate hypotheses, gather evidence from a variety of data sources, collate and interpret information, make judgements, draw conclusions and report their findings” (p. 5). In this way, students not only learn the facts of history but they develop their individual understandings of history, based on a variety of teaching approaches.
In developing a curriculum for Caribbean history instruction, both types of objectives must be alternated to produce effective instruction; however, based on the CXC curriculum, it is obvious that the emphasis is on fulfilling expressive objectives. Eisner (2005) classifies history as an ideographic subject area, since the intention is to “grasp the individual and unique features of their objects” (p. 38). The suitability of using expressive objectives in the teaching of this subject is therefore very plain to see, since it speaks to the subject matter, type of learning and type of students.
Firstly, to understand why expressive objectives are suitable for teaching History, one must recall Eisner (2005) who said that the subject matter is an important determining factor. History is an ideographic subject. It is the study of the activities that happened in our past, but these activities left behind relics, traces and marks that have become subjects of collection and interpretation. History not only seeks to inform us of our past, but also provides a study into the nature of man- times, circumstances and environments may change, but the nature of man remains the same. There is desire for uniformity of response to an extent; however the emphasis is placed on how individuals interpret the content and their diverse responses to it. For example, we teach of the abolition of the Slave trade. The multiplicity of ethnic cultures based in the class will present a dialogue where some may view the plight of the freed slaves as a blessing, in that they were finally free; while others may view it as a curse, because of the fact that they were thrust into the world to “make it on their own”. Both points of views are relevant, but there is no right or wrong answer there; just critical analysis at play. The CXC curriculum’s rationale specifically states that there is no desire to promote one organizing principle or interpretation of the content, and as such, emphasizing the use of expressive objectives will cater to this aim. Meaning becomes personalized as students produce diverse perspectives and work; and the teacher may not be able to predict the direction a lesson will take, or articulate in specific terms, a quantifiable intended outcome.
Secondly, the aims of the curriculum are an integral determining factor. The aims of the Caribbean Examination Council identify a desire to equip students with higher order thinking skills that can benefit them in later pursuits, such as Law, International Relations, Mass Communications and Archival Science (CXC. 2010). Since these aims are not easy to translate instructional terms, teaching history requires an approach where a dominant emphasis is placed on expressive objectives- creating learning encounters and observing and evaluating emergent perspectives and the development of soft skills. In this way, the content is used as a map to encourage the realization of the aims of the curriculum. Some of these learning encounters may be Socratic in-class discussion; some may be producing individual analyses of the themes; but the desired outcome of such encounters is to foster the development of the affective domain- critical thinking, co-operative learning and creative representation. Developing instructional objectives to achieve these outcomes is therefore not feasible, as they are not measurable; underscoring the principle of type of learning being relevant to type of objective used. Expressive verbs such as assess, and evaluate will be more appropriate.
Finally, the students are another important factor to consider in emphasizing expressive objectives in History instruction. Because of their developmental stage at this point in their academic career, expressive objectives guide them to become critically reflective of the world in which they inhabit and develop a sense of identity, while also preparing them for the types of learning and interactions they will experience after secondary school. According to Erikson’s theory of personal and social development, children at this age go through an “Identity versus Role Confusion” stage. Teenagers at this stage must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex roles, politics and religion. Hetherington and Parke (1999) posited that if these developmental needs are not met, children will become confused about their roles in society, as well as in their personal identities. Caribbean History is strategically placed to address these developmental needs through the use of expressive objectives. The CXC curriculum acknowledges the importance of “foster[ing] the exploration and development of their Caribbean identities” (CXC, 2010). Also, by emphasizing expressive objectives, students learn the soft skills needed to succeed at higher learning and as contributing members of society. Slavin (2000) and Santrock (2001) both agree that at this developmental stage students must be encouraged to think independently and be allowed to express their views freely. The development of these skills, through the pronounced use of expressive objectives in History instruction, prepares students for leadership roles in civil society, and both the public and private sector (CXC, 2010).
As mentioned before, the teaching of Caribbean History requires a marriage of both instructional objectives and expressive objectives, with the dominant emphasis on expressive objectives to foster the development of independent thinking, enquiry and creative representation. Instructional objectives lay the foundation for the learning encounters that will utilize expressive ones. The following is a practical example of this marriage at work, based on the CXC Caribbean History Curriculum.

Theme 1: The Indigenous Peoples and the Europeans
Performance outcome: Identify the three factors for Columbus’ voyages to the Caribbean and construct a timeline of events to illustrate.
Performance evaluation: The student will correctly construct a timeline that illustrates the chronological order of events leading to the voyages of Columbus to the Caribbean.
Instructional objective: Given the three factors for Columbus’ voyages to the Caribbean, the student will create a timeline of events that led him here.

Figure 1.1 Example of an Instructional Objective for teaching Caribbean History

An instructional objective has three parts- a performance objective, determination of performance conditions, and lastly, a standard from which to qualify the performance. In the case of this example, the performance conditions will not be applicable, since the topic will be based on verbal information and concrete concepts (Mager, 1962). The performance objective stated above attends to the cognitive aspect of the curriculum as it relates to knowledge acquisition. Drawing of the timeline attends to psychomotor aspect of the curriculum that requires students to be able to classify and order data, and record data in various ways. Using this same theme and topic, an expressive objective can now be stated thus:
To examine and appraise the reasons for Columbus’ voyages to the Caribbean. In examining his reasons for coming here, and appraising whether his coming was beneficial to us or not, students are challenged to explore the causes and effects of historical events, their impact and detect bias in the different representations of historical events. In doing this, they develop skills of independent thinking, critical analysis and enquiry; and the affective domain is addressed. By marrying instructional objectives with expressive objectives in a single lesson plan, the teacher is able to attend to the three domains of learning, as outlined in Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, 1956).
In this paper, I have sought to argue that educational objectives are based on individual values about how education should be carried out. An essentialist curriculum may omit expressive objectives since they do not focus on knowledge acquisition but on the development of higher order thinking skills. A progressivist curriculum will seek to incorporate them with instructional objectives as part of instruction for the same reason. I have also distinguished two types of educational objectives- instructional and expressive- and their functions in curriculum planning. I have illustrated the suitability of each type of objective to the teaching of Caribbean History, based on the literature of contributing writers in the fields of curriculum planning and child psychology. I have given examples of both types of educational objectives in a practical lesson plan and justified my choice of their use in instruction. For effective instruction, there must be a co-mingling between instructional and expressive objectives; and where the dominant emphasis is placed, should be determined by the subject matter, type of learning and type of students. The formulation and use of instructional and expressive objectives have implications for the selection of learning activities and evaluation; and identifying the aims and objectives of a course of study is very important to determining how they are used in curriculum development.

References
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