...behavioural approach focuses on the behaviour of an individual in order to explain psychological problems. Behaviourists claim that abnormal behaviour is learned through experiences in the same way as most other behaviour through classical and operant conditioning. Behaviourists believe the concept of classical conditioning can be used to explain the development of many abnormal behaviours, including phobias and taste aversions. The theory of classical conditioning is used to explain how behaviour is learnt through ‘stimulus-response’ associations. An event in the environment (stimulus) results in a physiological reaction (response) in the individual. Then the events and reactions are forged into an association which can lead to the development of phobias. For example a person may climb the top of a high hill and when looking down (environmental stimulus) may experience nausea or dizziness (physiological response). This then will be made into a stimulus-response association and will lead to the development of a phobia e.g. the fear of heights, which means the person, will be scared of heights and will avoid them whenever possible. Watson and Rayner demonstrated how phobias are learnt through conditioning in their experiment involving “Little Albert”. They experimented with an 11-month-old boy, ‘little Albert’, producing fear of a white rat by associating it with loud and frightful noise. Skinner (1974) in his theory of operant conditioning explained how our behaviour is influenced...
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...This essay has 2462 words ‘Behaviourists explain maladaptive behaviour in terms of the learning principles that sustain and maintain it. Discuss this statement and show how a behaviourists approach to therapy is in stark contrast to a psychoanalytic one’ Behaviorism was originally founded by John B. Watson who believed that behavior had the means to be measured, trained and changed (1913) The Behavioural theory is firstly based on experiment and secondly by describing how human behaviour is learnt through principles and rules. Maladaptive behaviour is when an individual is unable to adjust to situations; psychologists use this term to describe patterns of emotional disturbance. Both behavioural and psychoanalytic psychologists use this in different ways. The behavioural theory is based on two main factors being biological drives such as primitive needs and sex drive and what is learnt. The three main principles in the behavioural theory are Stimuli, response and conditioning. Behaviour is believed to be a conditioned response to an environmental stimulus. Individuals are obliged to react to stimuli using their senses such as seeing and hearing. There are short lived unlearned behaviours such as suckling and unlearned grasping. Responses are overt and implicit, learned or unlearned. Response can be foreseen if stimuli are available and stimuli can be predicted from the response. Unlearned responses are automatic such as breathing heavily and perspiring when running. Unlearned...
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...Dysfunctional Family Systems and Disordered Self-Image Abstract: Disordered self-image, sense of self, and self-esteem are affected negatively by dysfunctional family systems. Maladaptive perfectionism affects mood, causes decreased self-esteem, and contributes to the development of avoidance tactics. Adolescent dysregulations includes disordered eating behaviors and/or eating disorders, anxiety, depression, body dissatisfaction, and extreme attempts at weight control; all of which can be caused by child sexual abuse, maladaptive perfectionism, parental attachment issues, and the development of alexithymia. Other dysregulations include faulty coping mechanisms, which are also affected by anxiety, depression, and neuroticism. Thesis: An adolescent’s sense of self, self-image, and self-esteem are affected by dysfunctional family systems, including family systems that reflect child sexual abuse, poor attachments, alcoholism, and the development of alexithymia. The adolescents in families such as these have psychological reactions to their disordered self-images and the dysfunctional family systems. Dysfunctional Family Systems and Disordered Self-Image Adolescent development of eating disorders, disordered eating behavior, and/or subclinical eating behaviors may be caused by perfectionism, child sexual abuse, or other trauma such as having alcoholic parents. Poor self-esteem, poor sense of self, and family dysfunctions may be caused by perfectionism, childhood sexual...
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...is meant by a 'model of abnormality'?[2] A: Models of abnormality each offers a different explanation for the origins of mental disorders. They are basically the conceptual models, each research and treatment adopted according to it. (b): Describe models of abnormality. [8] A: There are four type of models: Medical model (or Biological method), Psychodynamic model, Behavioral model and the Cognitive model. Medical model (or Biological model) is a view of abnormality that sees mental disorders as being caused by abnormal physiological processes such as genetics, brain damage and chemical imbalance. Abnormality according to this model is seen as an illness or disease. They treat mental disorders with the help of chemotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy and psycho surgery. According to Psychodynamic model, abnormal behavior is caused by underlying psychological forces of which the individuals is probably unaware. It focuses on unconscious mind primarily and according to Sigmund Freud, if a child does not successfully complete any of the psychosexual stages, it will cause abnormality. It is treated by talk therapies and test like the rorshack and free-word association. The Behavioral model has a view that abnormal behavior are maladaptive, learned responses in the environment which can be replaced by more adapted behaviors. These disorders emerge due to classical conditioning, operant conditioning or social learning. It can be treated with positive and negative reinforcement...
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...Anxiety, Mood/Affective, Dissociative/Somatoform Matrix | Anxiety Disorders | Mood and Affective Disorders | Dissociative Disorders | Somatoform Disorders | Description of Categories | Agoraphobia without a history of Panic Disorder, Acute Stress Disorder caused by general medical condition, Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Anxiety Generalized, Panic Disorder without Agoraphobia, Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Social Phobias, Specific Phobias, Anxiety, Substance-Induced Anxiety Disorder, (BehaveNet clinical capsule, 1996-2010) | Major Depressive Episode, Dysthymic Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder (Recurrent &Single Episode), Depressive Disorder (NOS),Hypo manic Episode, Mixed Episode, Manic Episode, Bipolar Disorder & Bipolar II Disorder, Mood Disorder (NOS)Substance-Induced Mood Disorder | Dissociative Identity Disorder, Depersonalization Disorder, Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Fugue | Conversion Disorder, Body Dysmorphic Disorder, Hypochondriasis, Somatization Disorder, PainDisorder,Somatoform Disorder (NOS),Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder | Specific Disorder | Generalized Anxiety Disorder | Cyclothymic Disorder | Depersonalization Disorder | Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Symptoms | Feeling hyped up and or on edge, restlessness, being easily worn out or tired, difficulty concentrating, staying on task or mind going blank, tense muscles, being irritable, problems falling...
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...Anxiety, Mood/Affective, Dissociative/Somatoform Matrix | Anxiety Disorders | Mood and Affective Disorders | Dissociative Disorders | Somatoform Disorders | Description of Categories | Agoraphobia without a history of Panic Disorder, Acute Stress Disorder caused by general medical condition, Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Anxiety Generalized, Panic Disorder without Agoraphobia, Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Social Phobias, Specific Phobias, Anxiety, Substance-Induced Anxiety Disorder, (BehaveNet clinical capsule, 1996-2010) | Major Depressive Episode, Dysthymic Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder (Recurrent &Single Episode), Depressive Disorder (NOS),Hypo manic Episode, Mixed Episode, Manic Episode, Bipolar Disorder & Bipolar II Disorder, Mood Disorder (NOS)Substance-Induced Mood Disorder | Dissociative Identity Disorder, Depersonalization Disorder, Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Fugue | Conversion Disorder, Body Dysmorphic Disorder, Hypochondriasis, Somatization Disorder, PainDisorder,Somatoform Disorder (NOS),Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder | Specific Disorder | Generalized Anxiety Disorder | Cyclothymic Disorder | Depersonalization Disorder | Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Symptoms | Feeling hyped up and or on edge, restlessness, being easily worn out or tired, difficulty concentrating, staying on task or mind going blank, tense muscles, being irritable, problems falling asleep...
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...Subsequently, a large part of it will explore research on two forms of treatment that have been tested for its work with depressive rumination, specifically, metacognitive therapy, which seeks to removing patients’ Cognitive Attentional Syndrome and alter their metacognitive beliefs, and rumination-focused cognitive behaviour therapy, that aims to help reduce maladaptive ruminative styles and helping patients adopt a more concrete, process-driven and specific style of thinking instead. Finally, a potential avenue for treating depressed patients’ ruminative thinking patterns, imagery is investigated further. Key words: rumination, unipolar depression, metacognitive therapy, cognitive behaviour therapy, imagery restructuring, treatment. Depression is a highly common illness, with the World Health Organization (WHO) estimating that, as of 2012, 350 million people are afflicted by it worldwide (World Health Organization, 2012). There are many different subtypes of this illness, one of which is unipolar depression. Also known as major depressive disorder, unipolar depression is one of the more easily recognised mood disorders where, for most cases, individuals suffer a recurrence of a major depressive episode after at least two months without facing any depression (Barlow & Durand, 2012, p. 212). Depressed individuals often have a tendency to reflect upon...
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...Anxiety disorders are the most common of all mental health problems, affecting approximately one in 10 people, both children and adults (CMHA, 2010). Various factors have been implicated in the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders including biological (e.g., genetics, psychophysiology, temperament), personality (e.g., anxiety sensitivity or fear of arousal-related sensations), interpersonal (e.g., attachment), cognitive (e.g., information processing), preparedness, and behavioural (learning). Research indicates that environmental factors, such as learning, contribute more to the etiology and maintenance of anxiety than do genes (Eley, 2001). The principles of operant conditioning have taught us to recognize how certain coping techniques can reward, and therefore continue anxiety disorders. Two similar coping strategies for dealing with anxiety symptoms are called avoidance and escape. For more information about coping strategies, please review this section. As the name implies, avoidance refers to behaviors that attempt to prevent exposure to a fear-provoking stimulus. Escape means to quickly exit a fear-provoking situation. These coping strategies are considered maladaptive because they ultimately serve to maintain the disorder and decrease functioning. Operant conditioning enables us to understand the powerful impact of these two coping strategies. Both coping strategies are highly reinforcing because they remove or diminish the unpleasant symptoms...
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...Psychological Therapies Outline and Evaluate one or more psychological therapies used in the treatment of abnormalities (12 Marks) There are many psychological therapies that are used to treat psychological disorders. Systematic desensitisation is just one of these therapies that are developed by behaviourists in order to treat phobias, as it aims to make an individual learn that feared objects are not so fearful. This can be achieved by introducing the object gradually. If maladaptive behaviours have been learnt by classical or operant conditioning it should be possible to change them, therefore Systematic desensitisation takes a practical problem-solving approach based upon classical conditioning. It uses reverse conditioning to replace a maladaptive response to a stimulus with an adaptive response. Psychologists work with the patient and help create hierarchy of events relating to the original stimulus, by associating an alternative response (e.g. muscle relaxation) to the object instead of the response of anxiety. This is useful as if a person it able to tolerate imagined stressful situations then it will be followed by a reduction in anxiety; meaning the treatment is only effective if a client can apply their learnt behaviour to real life. There is also research evidence to support the treatment, as McGrath et al (1990) demonstrated that Systematic desensitisation is effective for 75% of people with phobias. This empirical evidence demonstrates that SD is an effective...
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...Diagnosis and Treatment Shirlene Deshields Axia College of the University of Phoenix Mood Disorders are characterized by disturbances in mood or prolonged emotional state (Morris and Maisto, 2005). These disorders, also referred to as affective disorders, involve continual feelings of sadness or periods of feeling overly happy, or fluctuations from extreme happiness to extreme sadness. Humans by nature have a wide emotional range. One moment a person can be “up” and then “down” the next depending on circumstances. For those with a mood disorder, this range of emotion is significantly constrained. Both Biological and Psychological Factors play a role in the development of mood disorders. There is evidence that exist that proves that this disorder can be passed down through genetics and are caused by certain chemical imbalances in the brain (Morris and Maisto, 2005). The most common mood disorders are depression, and bipolar disorder. When a person is persistently dealing with feelings of sadness beyond a time span of a few weeks, he or she may have depression. The mechanisms that trigger depression are still unknown to researchers. However, two natural substances that allow brain cells to communicate with one another-are also known as neurotransmitters are implicated in depression: serotonin and norepinephrine. Mood disorders are thought to be caused by nature and nurture. Biological factors that may lead to a bipolar episode are chemical imbalances...
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...Therapy for Anxiety Disorders in Children Elizabeth A. Gosch, PhD, ABPP Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine Philadelphia, PA Ellen Flannery-Schroeder, PhD, ABPP University of Rhode Island, Kingston Christian F. Mauro, PhD Scott N. Compton, PhD Duke University Medical Center Durham, NC This article elucidates the theoretical underpinnings of cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) as applied to the treatment of anxiety disorders in children, focusing on social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety disorder. It reviews behavioral and cognitive theories that have influenced this approach. We argue that it is necessary to understand the essential components of this approach in the context of these theories in order to provide effective, clinically sensitive, and child-focused treatment. Components discussed include assessment, psychoeducation, affective education, self-instruction training, cognitive restructuring, problem solving, relaxation training, modeling, contingency management, and exposure procedures. Hypothesized key processes, such as the need to be experiential in treatment, are presented for consideration. Keywords: anxiety; children; cognitive behavior therapy; theory A nxiety disorders are among the most common mental health disorders in youth with / \ prevalence rates ranging from 12% to 20% (Achenbrach, Howell, McConaughy, & Stan. Z r \ . g e r , 1995; Velting, Setzer, & Albano, 2004). Left untreated, these disorders tend to have long-term...
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...Chapter 1. Literature Review: Borderline Personality Disorder in university students 1.1 Chapter Overview The literature review first presents the evolution of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) over the past 60 years, highlighting the shift from psychodynamic perspectives to that of biological and environmental determinates. Diagnostic classification of BPD is then examined, and subsequently discussed in terms of sectors of psychopathology that serve to demarcate the disorder. Next, dominant contemporary aetiologies of BPD are discussed, leading to an examination of comorbidities and the prevalence of BPD across populations. The focus of the review shifts to an examination of BPD in university students, commencing with treatments that are both efficacious and suited for delivery in a university context. Then, management of BPD related behaviours on campus are discussed in terms of the role of university staff in providing assistance to students with BPD. The chapter concludes with a summation of considerations in assisting university students with severe symptoms of BPD while on campus. 1.2 Borderline Personality Disorder 1.2.1 The development of the Borderline construct Reliable and valid differentiation of the borderline construct has proved elusive. The phenomena was initially reported in psychodynamic literature in the 1930’s, however was not distinguished as a syndrome until 1953 (Knight, 1953). Indeed, the use of the term ‘borderline’ arguably represents a misnomer...
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...Eating, Substance, Sexual/Gender, Sex, and Personality Disorders The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV-TR, which was published in 2000, is a multi-axial diagnostic tool used by clinicians, psychologists, psychiatrist, and medical professionals for the classification of mental disorders (Hansell & Damour, 2008). Axis I and Axis II of the DSM-IV-TR cover symptom disorders—those typified by unwelcome types of distress and/or impairment—and personality disorders—those exemplified by inflexible personality traits that bring about impairment and/or distress—respectively. It is possible to be diagnosed with both symptom disorders and personality disorders. Notwithstanding, the basic distinction between Axis I and Axis II disorders is that personality disorders tend to be enduring, pervasive, and subjectively indistinguishable; whereas, symptom disorders tend to be acute, specific, and subjectively discernible. This paper will address the biological, emotional, cognitive and behavioral components of four Axis I symptom disorders: anorexia bulimia, alcohol abuse, sexual pain disorder, and exhibitionism; and one Axis II personality disorder: schizoid personality disorder. Eating Disorders The DSM-IV-TR includes two Axis I categories of eating disorders: anorexia nervosa—restricting and binge-eating/purging types—and bulimia nervosa—purging and non-purging types (BehaveNet, 1997-2010, n.p.). Anorexia nervosa affects between 0.5% and 1% of the general population...
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...Borderline Personality Disorder Name of Student Course name Date of submission Borderline Personality Disorder Literature Review The literature review first presents the evolution of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) over the past 60 years, highlighting the shift from psychodynamic perspectives to that of biological and environmental determinates. Diagnostic classification of BPD is then examined, and subsequently discussed in terms of sectors of psychopathology that serve to demarcate the disorder. Next, dominant contemporary aetiologies of BPD are discussed, leading to an examination of comorbidities and the prevalence of BPD across populations. The focus of the review shifts to an examination of BPD in university students, commencing with treatments that are both efficacious and suited for delivery in a university context. Then, management of BPD related behaviours on campus are discussed in terms of the role of university staff in providing assistance to students with BPD. The chapter concludes with a summation of considerations in assisting university students with severe symptoms of BPD while on campus The development of the Borderline construct Reliable and valid differentiation of the borderline construct has proved elusive. The phenomena was initially reported in psychodynamic literature in the 1930’s, however was not distinguished as a syndrome until 1953 (Knight, 1953). Indeed, the use of the term ‘borderline’ arguably represents a misnomer due to its association...
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...Axia College Material Appendix D Psychotherapy Matrix Directions: Review Module 36 of Psychology and Your Life. Select three approaches to summarize. Include examples of the types of psychological disorders appropriate for each therapy. |{Insert type of therapy approach} |{Insert type of therapy approach} |{Insert type of therapy approach} | |Summary of |aversive conditioning, a form of therapy |Behavioral treatment approaches it builds on the earning |systematic desensitization, | |Approach |that reduces the frequency of undesired behavior by |behavioral treatment approaches make this fundamental |gradual exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus is | | |pairing an aversive, |assumption helps cope with there learning skilss and how |paired with relaxation to | | |unpleasant stimulus with undesired behavior. |to deal with problems |extinguish the response of anxiety | | |Although aversion therapy works reasonably well in | | | | |inhibiting substanceabuse | ...
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