Free Essay

Math

In:

Submitted By ttyl
Words 685
Pages 3
第十二章 假設測定IV:卡方測定 (The Chi Square Test)

1. 本單元目標 1. 舉例說明卡方測定適用的情況。 2. 解釋雙變項交叉表(bivariate table)的結構,以及如何將獨立性(independence)的概念應用到交叉表的期待次數(expected frequencies)與觀察次數(observed frequencies)之間的關係上。 3. 說明如何將假設測定的邏輯運用在交叉表的分析上。 4. 以五個假設測定的步驟說明卡方測定,以及正確的解釋測定的結果。 5. 說明卡方測定的限制,以及統計顯著性與實質重要性的差異。

貳、簡介 本章要介紹的Chi Square (χ2) test(卡方測定)大概是社會科學研究中,最常看到的一種假設測定方法。這是因為此測定方法相當容易符合假設測定第一個步驟─基本假定設定─的要求。此測定方法是兩個名目尺度變項間之假設測定的方法。因此在level of measurement 的要求方面是最基本的nominal level of measurement。這名目尺度變項不限於是二分的,也可適用在其他尺度測量的變項上。而χ2 test也是一種無參數的測定,因此在基本假定部分,我們無須知道母群體之分配特性(distribution-free)。χ2之抽樣分配是一種已知之理論分配,就叫χ2分配。(所謂Chi Square是χ這個希臘字母的發音加上「平方(square)」的英文)。

這種可以相當容易符合基本假定要求的無參數測定方法,可以讓我們在做拒絕虛無假設的決策時,比較有信心。這是因為做假設測定時,如果在基本假定設定(測定的第一個步驟)中的任一要求或虛無假設(測定的第二個步驟)是錯誤時,我們就可拒絕虛無假設。但在無參數測定方法的情況下,我們比較容易符合基本假定的要求,因此可專注在判斷虛無假設是否為錯誤,決策的結果也比較有信心。

參、雙變項交叉表 卡方測定的進行要用到雙變項交叉表。此交叉表同時呈現出兩個不同變項間次數分配的情況。因此,雙變項交叉表可用來探索這兩個變項間是否有明顯的關係存在。例如,以下是表示性別與教育程度間關係的一個雙變項的交叉表:

表1 性別與教育程度 (N=100)
| | 性別 | | |
|教育程度 |男 |女 |合計 | |
|大 專 | | |50 | 邊緣總數 |
|大專以下 | | |50 | |
|合計 |50 |50 |100 | |
| | | | | |
| |邊緣總數 | | | |

雙變項交叉表由欄(columns)與列(rows)組成。各欄與各列交會的部份就是表示兩個變項共同次數的格(cells)。通常我們會將自變項放在欄的位置,應變項則放在列的位置(但研究者也可能會將位置調換)。一個交叉表中的每一欄及每一列,還會有該欄或該列的總數合計(subtotals),也稱之為邊緣總數(marginals)。整個交叉表的樣本數,則是放在欄邊緣總數與列邊緣總數交會處。一個交叉表應該有清楚描述此表的表名。各欄及各列也要有變項名稱,以及清楚表示變項類別的標題。

很明顯的是,以上的交叉表還缺乏各格的訊息。一個完整之表自然是將上面每格內填入次數。各格的次數是將樣本中每一個案,依照其在兩個變項上所測量到類別或分數,一一放入各格中。

參、卡方測定的邏輯 χ2 test有幾種不同的用法,在此我們只討論兩種,一種是所謂的「獨立性考驗」(the test for independence),另一為「適合度考驗」(the test of goodness of fit)。

以前我們已經碰到過所謂兩樣本抽樣時要獨立抽樣之概念。在此情況下,這個概念是說:選取一個樣本中之個案時,不會影響到選取另一個案之機率。在χ2 test之討論中,獨立性(independence)之意義略有不同。在此測定方法的情況中,獨立性的意義是指變項間的關係,而非樣本。當兩個變項間的關係為獨立時,則一個案分類到第一個變項中某一類別的機率,是和此個案出現在另一個變項之某一類別的機率無關。一個簡單的兩變項間關係為獨立的例子是,做為一個男人或女人(性別)和他或她是否會結婚(婚姻狀況)無關。但如果兩個變項的關係不是獨立的話,那麼一個案出現在第一變項中某一類別之機率,是會和此個案出現在另一變項之某一類別的機率則會有關係。設想另一種極端的狀況是,如果是男性就一定是大專程度的話,當我們知道某一個按為男性時,我們也就知道其為大專程度的機率為100%。

以前面的例子來說,如果性別和教育程度並無關係,即兩變項為獨立時,則50位男性有大專學歷及大專以下程度的機率應相當接近。就如同擲一個好的骰子一樣,50個男生中,應該是有一半人為大專程度,另一半為大專以下程度。50位女性的情況,也是一樣。事實上如果100人平均分在4格中,自是表示說一個人到那個格中是一個random chance。因此,當兩變項為獨立時,樣本中個案到四格之任何一格的機率均等。這種機率均等的情況,就是χ2 獨立性考驗之虛無假設的意義。因此,χ2 test of independence之虛無假設為「變項間之關係是獨立的」。

肆、卡方的計算及測定的步驟 在χ2 test of independence之虛無假設「變項間之關係是獨立的」情況下,即在說如果null hypothesis為真的話,則每格中之次數(即一變項之某一類別與另一變項之某一類別間之交集的次數)是在random chance下發生的。這種虛無假設下所產生(或算出)之次數稱為「期待次數」(expected frequencies)或「理論次數」。χ2 test of independence即在比較實際觀察到的次數(observed frequencies)與期待次數之間的差距是否大到一顯著水準下所期待的。基本上,我們是要計算一檢定統計值,χ2 (obtained),然後和χ2 (critical)值來比較。

χ2 (obtained)=Σ(fo-fe)2/fe,
其中
fo=實際觀察到之每一格的次數 fe=為變項間若是獨立時,每一格之期待次數
而一個 fe=(相對應之列邊緣合計)×(相對應之行邊緣合計)/N

以下就以一例來說明χ2 test of independence之步驟。

表2 性別與教育程度 (N=100)
| | 性別 | |
|教育程度 |男 |女 |合計 |
|大 專 |30 |10 |40 |
|大專以下 |25 |35 |60 |
|合計 |55 |45 |100 |

1、基本假定: Model:獨立隨機樣本(Independent random samples) 測量尺度為名目(Level of measurement is nominal)

2、虛無假設: Ho:兩變項是獨立的。(亦即性別與教育程度無關) (H1:兩變項並非獨立的)。

3、選出抽樣分配及建立臨界區 樣本χ2值之抽樣分配和Z或t分配不同,是一個正偏之分配,亦即大部分樣本之χ2值在分配之左側,而臨界區是設在the upper tail,即右側之尾端部分,此分配之狀態也和自由度有關。

圖1 不同自由度之χ2的抽樣分配

圖2 χ2 test之臨界區設定

正如以往一樣,在χ2抽樣分配下之各種不同顯著水準之χ2(critical)是早已算出(見Appendix C)。而χ2 test下之自由度(df),是以 df=(r-1)(c-1) 算出,其中 df=自由度,r=列之數目,c=行之數目。

以我們之例來說,則 Sampling distribution=χ2 distribution α=0.05 df=1 χ2(critical)=3.841
〔χ2基本上是兩尾測定,但因我們只關心是否(fo-fe)2>0,故圖2
之臨界區是在右側尾端。〕

4、計算檢定統計值 以fe之計算方式,我們可求出每一格之期待次數如下表所示:

表3 〔表2〕各格之期待次數 (N=100)
| | 性別 | |
|教育程度 |男 |女 |合計 |
|大 專 |22 |18 |40 |
|大專以下 |33 |27 |60 |
|合計 |55 |45 |100 |

上面fe計算方法,可從兩種不同的角度來看前面說明在虛無假設下,各格次數發生的機率應是一種random chance的意義。首先,就性別來看,男性有55人,女性有45人。如果性別和教育程度無關,則男性(或女性)上大專或大專以下的比例就會和大專或大專以下之邊緣總數的比例相同。換言之,55位男性中會有40%的人上大專,而同樣的女性45人中也會有40%的人上大專。之所以說是40 %人會上大專,不論男女,是因為100人中,不論男女,有40人是有大專程度的。上表中男性上大專之f e計算的方式就可看成是55×(40/100)。其餘的可類推。

另一個角度是,當性別與教育程度無關時,大專程度的40人中,男生的比例會是55%,而女生的比例就是45%。同樣的,大專以下程度之性別比例的分配也是這樣。這個道理和上面所說的相同。

所以,χ2 (obtained)=Σ(fo-fe)2/fe =(30-22)2/22 + (10-18)2/18+(25-33)2/33 +(35-27)2/27 =10.78

5、決策並解釋測定的結果 ∵10.78>3.84 ∴兩變項間不是獨立的,亦即,性別和教育程度有關

伍、χ2 之適合度考驗(The goodness of fit test) 上面是利用χ2 test做兩變項間之獨立測定。我們也可以用χ2分配來看一個變項之次數分配是否達到顯著水準。其道理和上述相似,我們也是看:是否觀察到的次數分配和理論次數的差距很大(達到顯著水準)。如果observed和expected很接近,則我們說這是 “good fit”。(good fit不一定是我們要的,以目前的討論為例,good fit即是不能拒絕虛無假設)。

適合度考驗與前述之考驗不同之處,是在期待次數計算方法上。在此我們也是依照虛無假設來設定期待次數為何。例如以拋一個銅幣為例,如果銅幣沒有問題的話(虛無假設),則在一連串的拋投後,您應會期待正反面出現之機會均等,此即依虛無假設定出期待值之例。以下另以書中所列之例(P.294)來看χ2之goodness of fit的測定。

<例>如果你收集了某一地區之一年內各月份犯罪案件之統計,你想知道是否犯罪情況會隨季節而改變,在此您只有一個變項,即犯罪案件,其分配是依月份而變化,如果犯罪率不隨月份變化的話,則您可期待每月犯罪案件應和全年犯罪案件總數除以12相接近。

在此虛無假設即為「犯罪率不因時間或月份而有不同」,而期待次數即以全年犯罪次數除以12計算出,然後和觀察到之次數做比較。

表4 每月犯罪次數 月份 犯罪次數 1 190 2 152 3 121 4 110 5 147 6 199 7 250 8 247 9 201 10 150 11 193 12 212

合計 2172 1、基本假定: Model:Random Sampling Level of Measurement is nominal

2、虛無假設:H0:每月份犯罪率並無不同 (H1:每月份犯罪率是不同的)

3、選出抽樣分配及建立臨界區: 在χ2 goodness of fit test中,df=k-1,而k是指類別數(在此 即為12個月份) 故 Sampling distribution=χ2 distribution α=0.05 df=12-1=11 χ2(critical)=19.675

4、計算檢定統計值 χ2 (obtained)=Σ(fo-fe)2/fe 在此fe=2172/12=181 故χ2 (obtained)=(190-181)2/181+(152-181)2/181 +……+(212-181)2/181 =125.02

5、決策並解釋測定的結果 ∵125.02>19.675 ∴在α=0.05之顯著水準下,拒絕H0,亦即犯罪率依月份 而不同。

陸、χ2 test之限制 雖然χ2 test很有彈性,可以適用在不同測量尺度的變項上,但是當變項有許多類別時,就難以一目了然交叉表中的情形。例如,當一個5×5的交叉表有25個格時,我們不容易知道理解變項間的關係。通常我們使用卡方測定時,各變項的類別數最好是4個或以下。

做χ2 test時還要特別留意兩種與樣本數大小有關的情況:
1、當樣本數小的時候
在χ2 test之情況,小樣本的定義是當交叉表有相當高比例之格數之期待次數是5或小於5時,所謂「高比例」事實上統計學家有不同的看法,保守的做法自是當任何一格有期待次數是5或小於5時,就應採取補救措施,理由是當樣本小時,我們不能夠假定樣本χ2 值之抽樣分配是和理論上之χ2 分配一樣。

在一2×2交叉表之情況下,我們可用耶茲氏校正(Yate’s correction of continuity)的方法來計算χ2 (obtained),其公式為

χ2 c=Σ(|fo-fe|-0.5)2/fe

當交叉表大於2×2時,我們可以合併變項中某些類別之方法來增加格內之次數。當然要如何合併須有正當之理論根據,如果實在無法合併,你只好用未修正之χ2計算法算出χ2值,然後警告讀者要小心判定之結果了。

2、當樣本很大時 您也許已發現當您的樣本數目增加一位數(如由100變成1000),χ2 (obtained)值也增加一位,換言之,χ2值是受到樣本數變化之影響極大。因此,在做χ2 test時,您要特別注意,達到統計顯著水準與是否有理論或實質上之意義或重要性是不同的。另一方面,統計顯著測定本身在社會學研究有重要的角色。只要是用隨機樣本,我們就必須要確定觀察到的是否是by mere random chance。在確定觀察到的結果是達統計顯著後,以χ2 test之情況來說,我們還可繼續算出兩變項關係之強弱為何,這些就有待以後討論了。

Similar Documents

Free Essay

Math

...and solve problems in everyday life”. In my everyday life I have to keep the balance in my check book, pay bills, take care of kids, run my house, cook, clean etc. With cooking I am using math, measuring how much food to make for four people (I still haven’t mastered that one). With bills I am using math, how much each company gets, to how much money I have to spare (which these days is not much). In my everyday life I do use some form of a math. It might not be how I was taught, but I have learned to adapt to my surroundings and do math how I know it be used, the basic ways, none of that fancy stuff. For my weakest ability I would say I fall into “Confidence with Mathematics”. Math has never been one of my favorite subjects to learn. It is like my brain knows I have to learn it, but it puts up a wall and doesn’t allow the information to stay in there. The handout “The Case for Quantitative Literacy” states I should be at ease with applying quantitative methods, and comfortable with quantitative ideas. To be honest this class scares the crap out of me, and I am worried I won’t do well in this class. The handout also says confidence is the opposite of “Math Anxiety”, well I can assure you I have plenty of anxiety right now with this class. I have never been a confident person with math, I guess I doubt my abilities, because once I get over my fears and anxiety I do fine. I just have to mentally get myself there and usually it’s towards the end of the class. There are several...

Words: 418 - Pages: 2

Premium Essay

Math

...solutions. If you have a graphing calculator, this method is the quickest. If you don't have a calculator, it can be difficult to graph the equation. Completing the square: This is probably the most difficult method. I find it hardest to remember how to apply this method. Since the quadratic formula was derived from this method, I don't think there is a good reason to use completing the square when you have the formula Factoring: this is probably the easiest method for solving an equation with integer solutions. If you can see how to split up the original equation into its factor pair, this is the quickest and allows you to solve the problem in one step. Week 9 capstone part 1 Has the content in this course allowed you to think of math as a useful tool? If so, how? What concepts...

Words: 662 - Pages: 3

Premium Essay

Math

...This article is about the study of topics, such as quantity and structure. For other uses, see Mathematics (disambiguation). "Math" redirects here. For other uses, see Math (disambiguation). Euclid (holding calipers), Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by Raphael in this detail from The School of Athens.[1] Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity (numbers),[2] structure,[3] space,[2] and change.[4][5][6] There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope and definition of mathematics.[7][8] Mathematicians seek out patterns[9][10] and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof. When mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Practical mathematics has been a human activity for as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry. Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. Since the pioneering work of Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932), David Hilbert (1862–1943), and others on axiomatic systems in the late 19th century, it has become customary...

Words: 634 - Pages: 3

Premium Essay

Math

...Diana Garza 1-16-12 Reflection The ideas Stein presents on problem saving and just math in general are that everyone has a different way of saving their own math problems. For explains when you’re doing a math problem you submit all kinds of different numbers into a data or formula till something works or maybe it’s impossible to come up with a solution. For math in general he talks about how math is so big and its due in large measure to the wide variety of situations how it can sit for a long time without being unexamined. Waiting for someone comes along to find a totally unexpected use for it. Just like has work he couldn’t figure it out and someone else found a use for it and now everyone uses it for their banking account. For myself this made me think about how math isn’t always going to have a solution. To any math problem I come across have to come with a clear mind and ready to understand it carefully. If I don’t understand or having hard time taking a small break will help a lot. The guidelines for problem solving will help me a lot to take it step by step instead of trying to do it all at once. Just like the introduction said the impossible takes forever. The things that surprised me are that I didn’t realize how much math can be used in music and how someone who was trying to find something else came to the discovery that he find toe. What may people were trying to find before...

Words: 270 - Pages: 2

Free Essay

Math

...Sample Exam 2 - MATH 321 Problem 1. Change the order of integration and evaluate. (a) (b) 2 0 1 0 1 (x y/2 + y)2 dxdy. + y 3 x) dxdy. 1 0 0 x 0 y 1 (x2 y 1/2 Problem 2. (a) Sketch the region for the integral f (x, y, z) dzdydx. (b) Write the integral with the integration order dxdydz. THE FUNCTION f IS NOT GIVEN, SO THAT NO EVALUATION IS REQUIRED. Problem 3. Evaluate e−x −y dxdy, where B consists of points B (x, y) satisfying x2 + y 2 ≤ 1 and y ≤ 0. − Problem 4. (a) Compute the integral of f along the path → if c − f (x, y, z) = x + y + yz and →(t) = (sin t, cos t, t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. c → − → − → − (b) Find the work done by the force F (x, y) = (x2 − y 2 ) i + 2xy j in moving a particle counterclockwise around the square with corners (0, 0), (a, 0), (a, a), (0, a), a > 0. Problem 5. (a) Compute the integral of z 2 over the surface of the unit sphere. → → − − → − → − − F · d S , where F (x, y, z) = (x, y, −y) and S is → (b) Calculate S the cylindrical surface defined by x2 + y 2 = 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1, with normal pointing out of the cylinder. → − Problem 6. Let S be an oriented surface and C a closed curve → − bounding S . Verify the equality → − → − → → − − ( × F ) · dS = F ·ds − → → − if F is a gradient field. S C 2 2 1...

Words: 254 - Pages: 2

Premium Essay

Math

...say whether I was able to learn how to be a better teacher and what the teacher did that I could possibly use in the future. While analyzing and going through the process of this assignment it is helping realize how to become a better teacher as well. I would also like to get more comfortable and experience on using this template of the paper. Memories Of A Teacher My teacher, Mr. G, used many different instructional techniques and approaches to his lessons. Mr. G had taught me math for three years in a row, so I think that I have a good grasp on his approaches to the lessons that he would teach. He would assign many homework assignments, as well as in-class assignments, which helped me and other students understand and get practice with the lesson that we were learning. I think that with math having a lot of homework is a good thing. In my mind, the only way to learn how to do math is plenty of practice. The more you practice, the easier it will be. Mr. G would also have the students do some math problems on the chalk board or smart board to show the class and go over the corrections with the whole class so that everyone would understand the problem. Playing “racing” games also helped and added fun to the class. With the “racing” games, the students would get into groups and have to take...

Words: 1027 - Pages: 5

Free Essay

Math

...STAT2011 Statistical Models sydney.edu.au/science/maths/stat2011 Semester 1, 2014 Computer Exercise Weeks 1 Due by the end of your week 2 session Last compiled: March 11, 2014 Username: mac 1. Below appears the code to generate a single sample of size 4000 from the population {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. form it into a 1000-by-4 matrix and then find the minimum of each row: > rolls1 table(rolls1) rolls1 1 2 3 4 5 6 703 625 679 662 672 659 2. Next we form this 4000-long vector into a 1000-by-4 matrix: > four.rolls=matrix(rolls1,ncol=4,nrow=1000) 3. Next we find the minimum of each row: > min.roll=apply(four.rolls,1,min) 4. Finally we count how many times the minimum of the 4 rolls was a 1: > sum(min.roll==1) [1] 549 5. (a) First simulate 48,000 rolls: > rolls2=sample(x=c(1,2,3,4,5,6),size=48000,replace=TRUE) > table(rolls2) rolls2 1 2 3 4 5 6 8166 8027 8068 7868 7912 7959 (b) Next we form this into a 2-column matrix (thus with 24,000 rows): > two.rolls=matrix(rolls2,nrow=24000,ncol=2) (c) Here we compute the sum of each (2-roll) row: > sum.rolls=apply(two.rolls,1,sum) > table(sum.rolls) sum.rolls 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 742 1339 2006 2570 3409 4013 3423 2651 1913 1291 1 12 643 Note table() gives us the frequency table for the 24,000 row sums. (d) Next we form the vector of sums into a 24-row matrix (thus with 1,000 columns): > twodozen=matrix(sum.rolls,nrow=24,ncol=1000,byrow=TRUE) (e) To find the 1,000 column minima use > min.pair=apply(twodozen,2,min) (f) Finally compute the...

Words: 597 - Pages: 3

Premium Essay

Math

...Jasmine Petersen Dr. Abdeljabbar MAT 1111 April 23, 2014 Algebra is one of the most important subjects someone can learn. It is a subject that transfers into daily life. A lot of people do not realize that they are using algebra. Algebra can be anything from calculating the amount of money you’ve spent on your grocery shopping, designing structural plans for a building, and keeping track of the calories you have in your diet. Our professor told us that in every subject, we use math. My major is chemistry and mathematics is used widely in chemistry as well as all other sciences. Mathematical calculations are absolutely necessary to explore important concepts in chemistry. You’ll need to convert things from one unit to another. For example, you need to convert 12 inches to feet. Also, we use simple arithmetic to balance equations. A lot of things I’ve had learned from this course and one of them was that we use Math for everyday life. I’ve also learned many ways how to solve equations such as linear, quadratic, exponential, and logarithmic equations. All the material that we did learn was all easy to learn and understand. I believe that the instructor did a good job explaining on how to solve problems. If my friend was asking me how to determine the differences between the equation of the ellipse and the equation of the hyperbola, I would first give he or she the definition of the two words ellipse and hyperbola. An ellipse is a set of all points in a plane such that the sum...

Words: 623 - Pages: 3

Premium Essay

Math

...Math is used everyday – adding the cost of the groceries before checkout, totaling up the monthly bills, estimating the distance and time a car ride is to a place a person has not been. The problems worked this week have showed how math works in the real world. This paper will show how two math problems from chapter five real world applications numbers 35 and 37 worked out. Number 35 A person hired a firm to build a CB radio tower. The firm charges $100 for labor for the first 10 feet. After that, the cost of labor for each succeeding 10 feet is $25 more than the preceding 10 feet. That is, the nest 10 feet will cost $125; the next 10 feet will cost $150, etc. How much will it cost to build a 90-foot tower? Solving this problem involves the arithmetic sequence. The arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which each succeeding term differs from the preceding term by the same amount (Bluman, 2011). n = number of terms altogether n = 9 d = the common differences d = 25 ª1 = first term ª1 = 100 ªn = last term ª2 = ª9 The formula used to solve this problem came from the book page 222. ªn = ª1 + (n -1)d ª9 = 100 + (9-1)25 ª9 = 100 + (8)25 ...

Words: 540 - Pages: 3

Free Essay

Math

...A | Course Title & Number | Calculus II: MTH104 | B | Pre/Co-requisite(s) | Pre-requisite: MTH103 (Calculus I) | C | Number of credits | 3 | D | Faculty Name | Dr. Ghada Alobaidi | E | Term/ Year | Fall 2014 | F | Sections | Course | Days | Time | Location | MTH104.02 MTH104.04MTH104.06 | UTR UTRMW | 9:00-9:50 10:00-10:50 8:00-9:15 | PHY 113NAB 007NAB010 | | | | | | G | Instructor Information | Instructor | Office | Telephone | Email | Ghada Alobaidi | NAB 249 | 06 515 2754 | galobaidi@aus.edu | Office Hours: UT: 11:00 – 12:30 , R: 11:00 – 12:00 or by appointment. | H | Course Description from Catalog | Covers techniques of integration, improper integrals, sequences, infinite series, power series, parameterized curves, polar coordinates, integration in polar coordinates and complex numbers. | I | Course Learning Outcomes | Upon completion of the course, students will be able to: * Read, analyze, and apply to problems, written material related to the study of calculus. * Use the appropriate technique(s) – including integration by parts, trigonometric substitutions, partial fractions, etc. to integrate algebraic, logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric, and composite functions. * Evaluate improper integrals and test them for convergence. * Compute arc length and surface area of revolution of graphs and parametric curves. * Graph polar curves and find enclosed area and arc length. * Apply theorems about limits of...

Words: 1366 - Pages: 6

Premium Essay

Math

...you come to geometry, your opinion may vary. This class introduces a lot of new topics, which can be challenging, and take lots of practice outside of school if you do not pay attention or do your math homework. I strongly advise you to do your math homework everyday, not for just a grade, but it also helps you when it comes time for quizzes and tests. She rarely checks homework, but when she does, she will not tell you. It is also a great review for tests and quizzes. Ms.Hull’s tests and quizzes are not the easiest things you will take. The quizzes take new concepts and apply to the quiz. Also, her tests are usually always hard. It is a good idea to practice new concepts and review old ones from previous units, so you can get a good grade on the tests. I also advise you to be organized throughout the year. Organization is the key to success especially in math class. Tool kits are an extremely helpful resource to use. There are going to be a lot of conjectures and theorems that will be new, and it would be hard to just memorize them. My overall geometry year was not exactly the way I hoped it would turn out. It was extremely had, and it moves at a very quick pace, so keeping up was hard for me personally. If I could have done something differently, it would have been practicing math more often. Each concept was hard, and I did not have anytime to review it, because I have a lot of honors classes which require a lot of work too. The key to being successful in this course...

Words: 361 - Pages: 2

Free Essay

Math

...|7|SURVEY OF MATHEMATICS FALL 2015 | |8| | |8| | |8| | |8| | | |  | | |Instructor  | | |Gary F. Melendy | | | | | |Title  | | |Instructor ...

Words: 1789 - Pages: 8

Free Essay

Math

...Math 1P05 Assignment #1 Due: September 26 Questions 3, 4, 6, 7, 11 and 12 require some Maple work. 1. Solve the following inequalities: a) b) c) 2. Appendix D #72 3. Consider the functions and . a) Use a Maple graph to estimate the largest value of at which the graphs intersect. Hand in a graph that clearly shows this intersection. b) Use Maple to help you find all solutions of the equation. 4. Consider the function. a) Find the domain of. b) Find and its domain. What is the range of? c) To check your result in b), plot and the line on the same set of axes. (Hint: To get a nice graph, choose a plotting range for bothand.) Be sure to label each curve. 5. Section 1.6 #62 6. Section 2.1 #4. In d), use Maple to plot the curve and the tangent line. Draw the secant lines by hand on your Maple graph. 7. Section 2.2 #24. Use Maple to plot the function. 8. Section 2.2 #36 9. Section 2.3 #14 10. Section 2.3 #26 11. Section 2.3 #34 12. Section 2.3 #36 Recommended Problems Appendix A all odd-numbered exercises 1-37, 47-55 Appendix B all odd-numbered exercises 21-35 Appendix D all odd-numbered exercises 23-33, 65-71 Section 1.5 #19, 21 Section 1.6 all odd-numbered exercises 15-25, 35-41, 51, 53 Section 2.1 #3, 5, 7 Section 2.2 all odd-numbered exercises 5-9, 15-25, 29-37 Section 2.3 all odd-numbered exercises...

Words: 271 - Pages: 2

Premium Essay

Math

...find the national average cost of food for an individual, as well as for a family of 4 for a given month. http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/usda_food_plans_cost_of_food/CostofFoodJan2012.pdf 5. Find a website for your local city government. http://www.usa.gov/Agencies/Local.shtml 6. Find the website for your favorite sports team (state what that team is as well by the link). http://blackhawks.nhl.com/ (Chicago Blackhawks) 7. Many of us do not realize how often we use math in our daily lives. Many of us believe that math is learned in classes, and often forgotten, as we do not practice it in the real world. Truth is, we actually use math every day, all of the time. Math is used everywhere, in each of our lives. Math does not always need to be thought of as rocket science. Math is such a large part of our lives, we do not even notice we are computing problems in our lives! For example, if one were interested in baking, one must understand that math is involved. One may ask, “How is math involved with cooking?” Fractions are needed to bake an item. A real world problem for baking could be as such: Heena is baking a cake that requires two and one-half cups of flour. Heena poured four and one-sixth cups of flour into a bowl. How much flour should Heena take out of the bowl? In this scenario of a real world problem, we have fractions, and subtraction of fractions, since Heena has added four and one-sixth cups of flour, rather than the needed...

Words: 665 - Pages: 3

Free Essay

Math

... h(x)= 7-x/3 First we need to compute (f-h)(4) (f*h)(4)=f(4)-h(4), each function can be done separately f(4)=2(4)+5 f(4)=8+5 f(4)=13 H h(4)=(7-4)/3 same process as above h(4)=3/3=h(4)=1 (f-h)(4)=13-1 (f-h)(4)=12 this is the solution after substituting and subtracting The next part we need to replace the x in the f function with the g (f*g)(x)=f(g(x)) (f*g)(x)=f(x2-3) (f*g)(x)=2x2-1 is the result Now we need to do the h function (h*g)(x)=h(g(x)) (h*g)(x)=h(x2-3) (h*g)(x)=7-(x2-3) (h*g)(x)=10-x2 end result The inverse function-- f-1(x)=x-5h-1(x)=-(3-7) By doing problems this way it can save a person and a business a lot of time. A lot of people think they don't need math everyday throughout their life, but in all reality people use math almost everyday in life. The more you know the better off your life will...

Words: 261 - Pages: 2