...Methods of Psychology “Empiricism: The belief that accurate knowledge of the world requires observation of it” (Shacter, Gilbert, and Wegner, 2009). This is one way to see the world however; there may be many things that the naked eye cannot see. If it weren’t for questions asked, people would still be thinking the world is flat because that is the extent the naked eye can see. That is where questions come in to play and were they become research questions. There is also hypothesis derived from these questions. Research psychologists use many methods for their studies to achieve conclusions. A research case study can be used for many purposes including those in criminal justice like researching a criminal mind. “A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied” (Research Question, 2003). Questions help you know what you want to pay attention to in the sources. Questions also point the way towards the kind of primary sources that will be useful. Basic research questions will include the following what, when, where, why and who. “A Hypothesis is a specific and testable prediction that is usually derived from a theory” (Shacter, Gilbert, and Wegner, 2009). In psychology a hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables that has to be testable. A theory is based on a phenomenon that occurs and calls to be explained. Theories usually lead to hypothesis and hypothesis lead to research questions. A hypothesis...
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...1)The teacher's personal opinion cannot be accepted as scientific evidence because she is making a generalisation from just her own class. She has not used the scientific method to come to her conclusions about breakfast and reading abilities and she should have operationalised her criteria when working out if her pupils had proper nutrition in the morning rather than using loose vocabulary such as 'decent breakfast'. 2) The researcher could of put all names of the 400 students on pieces of paper into one container. He could of then selected 100 names from the container collecting his random sample of his access group. To reduce the risk of bias the researcher should use the same size paper for each name and have the paper folded in a way so he cannot possibly know which names he is picking. 3) Limitations of using random sampling in this study could come from the fact that the sample may not be truly representative. All names selected could come from only a few of the schools or he may not get an equal representation from each gender. The sample he does get at the end may be bias as not all parents will agree to their child being used in a study so a limitation would be that there are difficulties in getting a sample through this method. 4) It is important to operationalise the independent and the dependent variables in this study because the psychologist needs to have clear criteria for what exactly a 'decent breakfast'...
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...The scientific method is a convenient way of making observations, collecting data, making decisions, and interpreting outcomes. Psychologists from all around the world use the scientific method to help manage their research. Psychologists make use of the scientific method because they need to be able to describe, explain, and predict mental processes or behaviors. Within the scientific method are hypotheses, variables, results, and conclusions. A hypothesis is a prediction that will be tested in an experiment; researchers and psychologists always start off with this. An example of a hypothesis is if a student skips class on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, their grades will drop down. This example can be falsifiable because the student’s skipping...
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...Support Material GCE Psychology OCR Advanced GCE in Psychology: H568 Unit: G544 This Support Material booklet is designed to accompany the OCR Advanced GCE specification in Psychology for teaching from September 2008. Contents Contents 2 Introduction 3 Scheme of Work - Psychology : H568 : G544 5 Lesson Plans - Psychology : H568 : G544 27 Other forms of Support 35 Introduction Background A new structure of assessment for A Level has been introduced, for first teaching from September 2008. Some of the changes include: • The introduction of stretch and challenge (including the new A* grade at A2) – to ensure that every young person has the opportunity to reach their full potential • The reduction or removal of coursework components for many qualifications – to lessen the volume of marking for teachers • A reduction in the number of units for many qualifications – to lessen the amount of assessment for learners • Amendments to the content of specifications – to ensure that content is up-to-date and relevant. OCR has produced an overview document, which summarises the changes to Psychology. This can be found at www.ocr.org.uk, along with the new specification. In order to help you plan effectively for the implementation of the new specification...
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...SPEC CHECK + Experimental Method; Lab, Field & Natural experiments + Correlational Analysis and Observational Techniques + Case Studies + Aims and Hypotheses + Experimental Design + Design of Naturalistic Observations and Behavioural Categories + Design and Analysis of Self-Report techniques + Operationalisation of Variables and Pilot Studies + Control of Extraneous Variables, Reliability and Validity + BPS Code of Ethics and Dealing with Ethical Issues + Selection of Participants and Sampling Techniques + Demand Characteristics and Investigator Effects + Analysis, Presentation and Interpretation of Quantitative Data. + Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion + Presentation of Qualitative Data + Process Involved in Content Analysis Experimental Method Laboratory Experiments: Very highly controlled setting IV manipulated by experimenter Increased control, EV's are minimise Easier to replicate study as method and setting are standardised Can lead to increased demand characteristics Highly artificial and therefore lacks ecological validity Field Experiments: Conducted in a natural environment IV is manipulated by experimenter Increased ecological validity Behaviour is more natural and so there may be fewer demand characteristics Less control and so more EV's Harder to replicate Raises ethical issues Natural Experiments: The environment is familiar to the pts IV occurs naturally and is...
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...Phoenix Material Origins of Psychology and Research Methods Worksheet Part I: Origins of Psychology Within psychology, there are several perspectives used to describe, predict, and explain human behavior. The seven major perspectives in modern psychology are psychoanalytic, behaviorist, humanist, cognitive, neuroscientific/biopsychological, evolutionary, and sociocultural. Describe the perspectives, using two to three sentences each. Select one major figure associated with one of the perspectives and describe his or her work in two to three sentences. Type your response in the space below. Psychoanalytical is to make sense of the unconscious mind through therapy to release repressed emotions and experiences. This is therapy is usually used when a person is being treated for depression and anxiety disorders. Behaviorist Psychology emphasized objective, observable environmental influences on overt behavior. Humanistic Psychology is the study of free will. It is the study of voluntary and involuntary or reflex behavior. This is the fight or flight and survival of the fittest theory. Cognitive Psychology emphasizes thoughts, perception, and information processing. It is the study of how we view things in everyday life and how they affect us. Neuroscientific/Biopsychological examines behavior study of the brain, how the brain processes information electrically, and which part of the brain processes the information. Evolutionary Psychology is a study of natural selection...
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...Case Study: Janet Name College Case Study: Janet A case study is an in-depth analysis of a person, event, decision, period, project, policy, institution, or other system that is studied holistically by one or more methods. By gathering data and variety of sources and using these different methods, researchers can use scientific methods and perspectives to relate with various patterns and causes for behavior. In the field of psychology, case studies are widely known to help Psychologist’s and researchers with the assistance to help understand and overcome a person’s illness. While examining the “Case Study: Janet’, the use of psychology’s four goals and the modern perspectives were used to help determine the interpretation of the cause. Description Janet was a young girl that grew up in an abusive household that was beaten by her father as a part of a discipline process. Her father never explained why he used such drastic measures, so she grew up thinking that this was acceptable. She presumed that the only way to earn his love and respect was to do better. There was only one positive influence in her life; an aunt, who was rarely around because of the distance between them. Janet learned early to associate love with fear and trying with failure. As Janet grew older, she began to learn that her father might have been wrong. She began to see the regret coming from those actions, and soon realized that she had control. Janet started to guilt her father into...
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...Describe the cognitive approach in psychology and evaluate the research methods used. In the cognitive approach, lab experiments are reductionist because it’s focusing on basic processes and compares human cognition to computer functioning; ignoring the complexity of the human mind. The cognitive approach often takes this narrow focus and ignores social and emotional factors which may impact on cognition. This is evident from studies such as Ebinghaus experiment where he investigated forgetting and how memory ‘decays’. Although there are some explanations that relate to the brain and how our brain deals with information to remember it, there is another explanation that supports the reductionist side. Humans are like computers and if we don’t recall the information to remind ourselves of something, like in a computer drive we will simply get overloaded with other information that will overshadow this one and simply make us forget. This therefore shows how lab experiments can be reductionist. Furthermore, because it was a lab experiment where Ebinghaus knew what to expect from his inference we can say it was unfair and invalid because he was appreciative. The use of case studies in the cognitive approach is longitudinal which is good as it allows information to be gathered over a period of time and can therefore show changes in behaviour or thoughts over the set period. The Ebinghaus study, where he collected data over several weeks to see if he was capable of remembering things...
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...In the early days, psychology was known as the science of the mind, then shifted focus to behaviour in the 1950s, and has since swung back to the mind, but, however chequered its history may have been, it has remained predominantly shaded by the science umbrella. As Searle (1999) points out “academic psychology has placed great importance on the use of scientific approaches”, which has resulted in an emphasis on quantitative research methods, centred on collection of numerical data and statistical analysis (the empirical approach). However, since the 1960s there has been increasing criticism of such reliance on the quantitative data-collection characteristics of the scientific method, which has developed over subsequent decades into a strong shift towards more qualitative approaches. This has led to the somewhat inevitable, yet ultimately unhelpful, divide between competing methods: quantitative versus qualitative. According to Bauer, et al (2000), quantitative research deals with numbers, makes use of statistical models to explain the data and is considered ‘hard’ research, whereas qualitative research avoids numbers, involves interpretation of social realities and is considered ‘soft research. Both approaches, however, have their strengths and weaknesses. The strengths of quantitative research, as outlined by Burns (2000), includes precision and control – precision is achieved through quantitative and reliable measurement, control through sampling and design. Further,...
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...Statistics, and Psychology Psychology is the scientific investigation of mental processes and behavior (Kowalski & Westen, 2007, p. 3). During the late 19th century, psychology became an actual science because of the fascination of human behavior. Psychologists use observation to measure human behavior better to understand mental and biological processes, motives, and personality traits. Human behavior may be understood through applied and academic science (Psychology Majors, 2011). Based on this, research using the scientific method is necessary for statistical psychology. Early research and use of scientific method in psychology included the works of Edward Titchener. Titchener used structuralism to explore aspects of the mind. Research through this method focused on introspection, or individual conscious experience. Titchener used a table method similar to a chemistry periodic table to study human behavior. Titchener believed experimentation was the only scientific method to use for the study psychology (Northern Illinois University, 2003). A paradigm in psychology is a set of theoretical assertions that provide a model, abstract picture, or object of study (Kowalski & Westen, 2007, p. 11). A paradigm is a set of shared metaphors that compare any object of study through investigation. Many modern psychologists use innovative approaches to study human behavior to support traditional methods of psychology through use of research using the scientific method. According...
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...10 Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology Deborah Biggerstaff Warwick Medical School University of Warwick, Coventry UK 1. Introduction In the scientific community, and particularly in psychology and health, there has been an active and ongoing debate on the relative merits of adopting either quantitative or qualitative methods, especially when researching into human behaviour (Bowling, 2009; Oakley, 2000; Smith, 1995a, 1995b; Smith, 1998). In part, this debate formed a component of the development in the 1970s of our thinking about science. Andrew Pickering has described this movement as the “sociology of scientific knowledge” (SSK), where our scientific understanding, developing scientific ‘products’ and ‘know-how’, became identified as forming components in a wider engagement with society’s environmental and social context (Pickering, 1992, pp. 1). Since that time, the debate has continued so that today there is an increasing acceptance of the use of qualitative methods in the social sciences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Morse, 1994; Punch, 2011; Robson, 2011) and health sciences (Bowling, 2009; Greenhalgh & Hurwitz, 1998; Murphy & Dingwall, 1998). The utility of qualitative methods has also been recognised in psychology. As Nollaig Frost (2011) observes, authors such as Carla Willig and Wendy Stainton Rogers consider qualitative psychology is much more accepted today and that it has moved from “the margins to the mainstream in psychology in the UK.” (Willig & Stainton...
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...Organizational Psychology Psychology in itself can be divided into different specializations. There are two areas to be exact: applied and experimental psychology. Does organizational psychology envelop both of these areas, and if so, in what ways? However, experimental psychology is concerned with the science of behavior, while applied psychology deals with the application of scientific principles. Within organizational psychology, there are two major divisions that make up this type of psychology as with any other type, variation, etc. As the paper begins to flourish out and provide insight on this type of psychology, with said information, the reader will be able to better understand, discuss, and educate others about this specific field of psychology. “Organizational Psychology is a field that utilizes scientific methodology to better understand the behavior of individuals working in organizational settings. This knowledge is also used, in a variety of ways, to help make organizations more effective. Effective organizations are typically more productive, often provide higher-quality services to customers, and are usually more financially successful than less effective organizations. For private organizations, financial success often results in greater job security for employees, and increased share holder wealth for investors. For public organizations, such as police departments, municipal governments, and public universities, success mean higher-quality services and cost...
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...Cognitive Psychology PSY/360 April 7, 2011 Cognitive Psychology Psychology possesses several branches. One of these branches is cognitive psychology. Like biological psychology, this branch also seeks knowledge that potentially unlocks wonders of the mind. However, cognitive psychology focuses on the mental processes from an internal source not physically apparent. Whereas technology provides efficient methods for which to scan a brain and the activity therein, studying the mind is still yet to uncover mysteries behind thought. Studying the mind involves observation of behavior and of the environment but determining reason for thought in general is still out of reach. Inabilities to determine unobtainable conclusions do not slow the pursuit of knowledge, for the study of conscious thought continues. This paper includes an understanding of what cognitive psychology, as well as information regarding four essential milestones contributing to the development of cognitive psychology. In addition, this paper also focuses on the importance of behavioral observation. Comprehending Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology currently focuses on three main human characteristics. The first characteristic is the ability to perceive. Perception is important because this is the process in which an individual interprets the immediate environment as well as changes, situations, and interactions within it. The second characteristic...
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...Introduction to Cross Cultural Psychology Patrice Jones PSY/450 May 7, 2010 Joseph Gaines Introduction to Cross Cultural Psychology Cultural and cross cultural psychology is the field or branch of psychology the focuses primarily on culture, and the effects culture has on the mind and behavior. Culture is the symbols, attitudes, and behaviors shared by a group of people and passed on to the next generation. Culture affects how an individual thinks and in turn affects an individual’s behavior. Cultural psychology focuses on how culture affects an individual’s mental processes and behavior within that culture. Cross cultural psychology compares at least two cultures to see how culture affects an individual’s mental processes and behavior. Cross cultural psychology not only focuses on the differences between cultures, but also on the similarities and the reasons for these differences or similarities. Cultural psychology focuses on the effects culture has on an individual’s mental processes and behavior within that culture. Cultural psychologists try to find out as much about a particular culture, and how that culture affects the individual’s that lives there. Cultural psychologists can have a better understanding of a behavior when viewed in its sociocultural context. Cross cultural psychology compares two or more cultures to determine how culture affects an individual’s mental processes and behavior. Cross cultural psychology does not focus on only one culture...
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...Social psychology is the scientific study of the way individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context. Social psychology often emphasizes the power of the situation in affecting people. Social psychology can be distinguished from other disciplines, including sociology, clinical psychology, personality psychology, and cognitive psychology; however, social psychology overlaps with each of these disciplines as well. Social psychology may at first appear to be common sense, but common sense often makes contradictory claims, and many of the findings in social psychology would not be predicted by common sense. A wide range of research methods are used in psychology. These methods vary by the sources of information that are drawn on, how that information is sampled, and the types of instruments that are used in data collection. Methods also vary by whether they collect qualitative data, quantitative data or both. Qualitative psychological research is where the research findings are not arrived at by statistical or other quantitative procedures. Quantitative psychological research is where the research findings result from mathematical modeling and statistical estimation or statistical inference. Since qualitative information can be handled as such statistically, the distinction relates to method, rather than the topic studied. There are three main types of psychological research: 1. Correlational research In statistics, dependence is any statistical relationship between...
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