...Ethics Barb Butzen Ashford University PHI 208 Instructor Nicholes 11/01/2013 Ethics Ethical theories are based on questions of how humans should behave with each other. These theories give guidance and define what is right and wrong and how such behavior can aid in building a unified society. There are three major types of ethical theories; deontological, utilitarian, and virtue ethics and each theory brings with it a different set of strengths and weaknesses. While the three types of ethical theories contain great meaning, time has shown that universal ethical principles cannot be achieved because ethics is a learned behavior and cultural relativists will argue that right or wrong is decided by each individual culture. Deontological Theory Immanuel Kant is a philosopher most famous for his rationalism of the deontological theory. According to Kant, deontological theories are based on a duty that humans have a moral obligation to behave according to certain principles or laws. Kant questions what the fundamental source of morality and duty is, as well as what actions are committed by humans to justify an evaluation of those actions as right or wrong. Kant’s conclusion is that the ability we possess to rationally make decisions and our free will is the source of morality. Kant further concludes that rationality is the only action that can dictate the rules of morality (Kantian, n.d.). Kant’s categorical imperatives are certain rules that are a requirement...
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...Ethical Theories Virtues, ethics, and morals are what define people as good or bad, their actions as right or wrong. American society holds one’s virtues in high regard and often evaluates one based on virtue and moral conduct. Virtue by definition is, “the quality or practice of moral excellence or righteousness” (Collins English Dictionary, 2010). Thomas Mallory offered the most ethical character in fiction, Lancelot. It is his virtue that “Is an essential aspect of his success in arms” (McCarthy, 1988, p. 22). Virtue ethics and ethical relativism, studied by learned philosophers, help define the basis of right and wrong. Major Elements According to Aristotle, morality is a specific attribute of a person with regard to his or her own inner harmony. Aristotle explained moral attributes in the terms of one’s lucid ability of the inner self to manage its appetite for portion. He asserted that moral attributes are erudite and should be practiced to become habit (Athanassoulis, 2010, para 2). According to the textbook, “virtue is a state of character, that of being a good person” (Freeman, 2000, p. 88). Moral theories concern right and wrong behaviors; but virtue ethics change the kind of questions asked about ethics. Major elements in the theory of virtue ethics are the subjective behavior, qualities and habits that can lead the individual to make choices. This theory helps the individual to ask about right and wrong and how genuine fulfillment may be reached (Freeman...
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...• Ethical Relativism • Moral Differences • Not everyone shares our idea of what constitutes decent/moral behavior. • What we believe to be immoral behavior in fact can be grounded in an ethical code. – 9/11 for example. Al-Qaeda’s code of ethics identify their action as morally justified and mandated • Terms • Moral nihilism – View that there are no morally right or wrong viewpoints, that the whole moral issue is a cultural game. – Neither your nor my opinion matter because there is no moral right or wrong. – Difficult to uphold because it’s extreme. • Terms • Moral skepticism – We can’t know if there are moral truths or not. – Problem, how do you make moral judgments • Moral subjectivism – Moral views are to each individual and we can’t know the inner states from one person to another. – Problem, this approach has no problem solving capability. • • Soft Universalism • Belief that deep down, despite cultural differences, there exist basic moral principles that can be agreed on. • Allows for problem solving capability between cultures and ideas. • Hard Universalism • AKA…Moral absolutism • Holds that there is one absolute and universal moral code • Most often supported by ethical theories. • Descriptive and Normative Ethics • Important terms for any ethical theory • Descriptive ethics – An ethical theory that merely describes what is seen as fact. – Describes what is actually done or thought • In the US it generally isn’t considered...
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...Ethics - ETHICAL THEORY 1 Relativism and absolutism | This is the actual essay written by my student in the June 2009 exam. To access the mark scheme for this paper click here (and go to page 8). I particularly like her use of link words to develop an argument, so I've highlighted them in blue. She scored 100% on this question. There is a small error that she attributes Ruth Benedict's quote to William Sumner. PBHow would a moral relativist define good? G572 Q1 June 2009a) Explain the concept of relativist morality.A moral relativist would question "what do we mean by good?" when deliberating the best, most moral action to take when faced with an ethical decision. An example of a relativist moral statement is, "I ought not to steal because I will cause suffering to those I still from." This is a reasonable statement, considering the consequences of a potential action. It is teleological, in that it is concerned with ends (Greek word "telos" meaning end or purpose). Relativism is in direct contrast with absolute morality which is deontological and concerned with the actions themselves. A moral relativist would not believe that there is a fixed set of moral rules that apply to all people all times, in all places. Rather, they would leave the morality is changeable and differs culture to culture time to time, and place to place. This idea is known as cultural relativism.The theory of relativist morality was first established by Protagoras who asked the question "what is good...
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...Moral Development in Management Hai Dao MGMT-8010-1: Management in Human and Societal Development Dr. Donna Brown Walden University June 29th 2014 Moral Development in Management Today organizations face great challenges in managing their workforces effectively. With the trend of globalization in business, managers are required to update their knowledge and education on how to make the most use of organizational resources, including human and materials. However, humans are probably the most important resources of any organization. They are the ones to operate equipments; handle materials; and produce output. They are also the ones to provide customer service and receive feedback that can be useful for the organization. With that said, management has evolved over the years to adapt to the human development within organizations. Many theories have been applied to help managers manage their workforce more effectively. One of the theories that will be addressed in this paper is Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, because one believes that moral development of people is related the success of the organization. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development The main concept of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is that it “extended Piaget’s theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan” (Cherry, n.d.). Indeed, learning never ends, especially when people are trying to adapt to the changing environment of the workforce...
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...Morality is the decisions and actions one makes that are either wright or wrong. Lawrence Kohlberg a psychologist followed Piaget’s theory of morality. He came to the conclusion in his research that morality in individuals was developed in six stages. Through his research he studied a sample group of seventy two boys in Chicago. The ages of this group were ten, thirteen, and sixteen. He would later go on to research younger children and boys and girls from other cities in the United States and other countries (Crain 1985). Kohlberg was trying to figure out why some children acted how they did when it came to some moral dilemmas Stages of Moral Development Kohlberg theorized the development of moral behavior into six stages. The first stage is considered the preconvention level. At this stage a person behaviors morally or unmorally depending on the consequences of their behavior and rewards and self-interest (Coon & Mitterer, 2013). There are two stages at this level: obedience and punishment and stage two individualism and exchange. The conventional level is the second level and consists of two stages called Good Interpersonal Relationships and maintaining the social order. People act at this level to please others and to follow the rules and values of the group. The post conventional level is the highest level and consists of social contract and individual rights and Universal principals. Kohlberg states that the behavior of individuals at this level...
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...Ethical universalism and ethical relativism are two types of meta-ethical views, meaning the two theories attempt to understand the reason behind ethical properties, attitudes, boundaries and judgements. Ethical universalism can be viewed as an ideal world, while ethical relativism explains a more realistic perspective on why different cultures can view the same actions differently. The two delve more into the essential meaning of a theory rather than just simply labeling actions as right or wrong. Ethical universalism is the theory that there is a universal ethic that applies to all people, no matter the individual's history, preferences, traits or circumstances, and is applied to that individual at all times. Universalism principles are principles for everyone, all humans are granted equal rights therefore share the same values and views on what is right and wrong. Universalism is based on the idea that a rational test or standard can be applied to any ethical dilemma, however that rational test can vary among different groups of people. For example, a Utilitarian person would determine if an action is right by asking “does my action create the maximum good for the maximum number of people?” In a Utilitarians eyes, this action would be good and “universal”, but in another person's eyes this action could be morally or ethically wrong. That’s why I believe that there is little to no moral universalism. Because there are so many cultural differences in our society, the concept of...
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...reading is that “there is no objective truth in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture.” (Rachels, 618). In this reading, William Graham Sumner says, “there is no measure of right and wrong other than the standards of one’s society.” ( Rachels, 619) This means that right and wrong are determined by a specific culture and may not be viewed the same in another culture. Cultural relativism is the belief that although practices and ethical beliefs differ from society to society, it must be accepted as good, relative to each respective culture's beliefs and moral code. In cultural relativism, right and wrong become matters of opinion in a particular culture and one culture should not judge the behaviors of another culture by using the standards of their own culture as a measuring stick. If this is the case, then nothing is inherently wrong and nothing is inherently good. It is an “anything goes” mentality – it just has to be approved by ones’ culture or society. “Cultural relativism is a theory about the nature of morality” (Rachels, 618). But that’s all it is –it is only a theory. The moral decisions are a matter of the perception of what one cultures perceives to be moral. I disagree with Rachels’ viewpoint when he states that there is no absolute rational standard and that the theory of Cultural Relativism does us a service. He states, “We can come to understand that our feelings are not necessarily perceptions...
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...| | Sco 120:Introduction to Ethics and Social ResposablityJohn MeeksShawna BandmannMay, 24,2013 | | Ethics is best described as the difference between what is morally right and what is not right. Ethical theory defines what is perceived to be right and what is wrong, while ethical practice suggest that one’s environment and cultural beliefs determine who one will react in any given situation. The question how do we as a society decide what is morally right or wrong in moral “free choice” (Mosser, 2010)? Morals are unique to each person, culture, religious belief and environment. Ethical practice is defined by the diversity within each society, where no to people are alike. Morals don’t define ethics, ethics define morality. Abortion an age old ethical debate between moral right choice and wrong choice, why? To evaluate abortion with ethics, we must first understand the argument from all perspectives. What is the debate reason abortion is so fiercely argued in past and present generations? Abortion is the term to define the choice to terminate a woman’s pregnancy. Unitarian view, which is the view that relativist challenge. Utilitarian view suggest that abortion is not wrong because its selfish and benefits the mother not the unborn fetus, this is what Unitarians refer to as :ethical egoism”(Mosser,2010). Relativist view is just a little less judgmental, suggesting that some situations may be determined morally correct while others simply remain wrong. In this paper neither...
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...Kohlberg’s Moral Development Linda Jones University of Phoenix Moral development over an individual’s lifespan remains a major topic of interest for psychologists. There are many theories that have been developed over time but one of the most well-known was developed by Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg expanded the work of Jean Piaget and modified it to explain moral reasoning and how it develops. While Piaget described a process of moral development that occurred in only two stages, Kohlberg’s theory grew to include six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg proposed three these six stages and three levels that moral reasoning was a process that continued through an individual’s life. Level 1 of Kohlberg’s Moral Development is Preconventional Morality. It contains two stages. The first stage is Obedience and Punishment. This marks the earliest formation of moral development and is typically seen in young children though adults are also able to express this reasoning. In the first stage the individual sees rules as unchanging and absolute. Obeying the rules becomes a top priority because it is the only way to not be punished (Brans & Blu, 1998). The second stage of Level 1 is called Individualism and Exchange. Children begin to account for their own points of view. They also begin to judge actions based on intent as well as how the action serves the individual (Graham, et al., 2011). Reciprocity begins to be an option but only if the individual’s needs are also...
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...AO2’s | 1 | Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is based upon the principles of cognitive development proposed by Piaget. This suggests behaviour is driven by cognitive processing | 1 | Kohlberg’s investigative methods were more systematic than Piaget and therefore the explanation may have greater objectivity. | 2 | Similar to Piaget, Kohlberg suggests that moral development occurs in invariant stages which are culturally universal. | 2 | Snarey’s meta-analysis, which covered both collectivist and individualist cultures, supported the idea that these stages are universal in all cultures. | | | 3 | However, other research has suggested that the theory is culturally biased and Eurocentric. | | | 4 | Kohlberg takes a social constructivist approach to moral development, which means behaviour is affected by interaction This means that ‘good’ development can be promoted and ‘bad’ development can be addressed with therapy. | 3 | Kohlberg suggested that the process is driven by a gradual maturation of thinking skills which enable the individual to take different perspectives. | 5 | Whereas Piaget’s theory suggests that cognitive development occurs until about 12, Kohlberg’s theory of moral development suggests that it continues into adulthood. | 4 | Kohlberg also stated that development necessitates environmental and social interaction. | 6 | Therefore, Kohlberg is incorporating the theories of both Piaget and Vygotsky into the theory of moral development. | 5 | Kohlberg...
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...Moral relativism vs Moral absolutism Moral Relativism Moral relativism is the insight that there are no obvious ethical truths and that moral facts are only relative to a given individual. According to this theory what is morally good for one person or culture might be morally bad for another, and vice versa: there are no moral absolutes. Moral relativism holds that ethical truths are of this latter kind. According to moral relativism, ethical truths are subjective rather than objective. This means that whether lying is wrong, for example, can vary from person to person or from culture to culture. It may be that for some people, or in some cultures, it is wrong, but that for other people, or in other cultures it isn‘t. In one mild form, moral relativism can seem obvious. Of course different people have different moral obligations: I have a duty to pay my credit card bill; you do not. Each of us is in different circumstances, and those circumstances affect what we ought and ought not to do. Morality is therefore relative to circumstances. Moral truths are relative to people or groups of people. Moral relativism holds that two different people in identical circumstances can, for no other reason than that they are different people, have different obligations. This is a much stronger claim than that morality is relative to circumstances. Moral absolutism Moral absolutism is the ethical theory which believes that there are always absolute rules of which moral questions can be judged...
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...As one is to consider all the different cultures in the world, the differences between each of them are extraordinary. One’s culture can shape their morals, principals, and perspective of what is right or wrong. Cultures are driven by religion and tradition. Cultural relativism is the ethical theory that right or wrong rests with a society’s actual moral guidelines, and these guidelines vary from place to place and from time to time (Quinn, 2013). This theory can be proven on many levels. Although, most societies have many things in common such as the value of human life, respect for one’s parents, and practices such as marriage. There are also some distinct differences. One is to consider these differences and contrast how these differences are relevant to cultural relativism. After spending much time in Southwest Asia, I had a great opportunity to experience another culture. As the culture in Southwest Asia was very similar to my own, there were some distinct differences. In the United States, our laws are designed to cater to every religion, nationality, and even visitors. In Southwest Asia, 90 percent of the population is Muslim. Therefore it was very different in Southwest Asia, the laws of the land were based off Islamic law. Despite a person’s religious preference, while visiting Southwest Asia, one had to follow laws that derived from Islamic law. For example, Islamic law is very strict on marriage, therefore no couple could show any sign of physical affection such as...
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...1. Cultural Relativism: Culture relativism is the view that all cultures are equal. Regardless of the cultural differences, no culture is better than another. Each culture sets their own moral and ethical standards to live by. An example of Cultural Relativism would be how in some cultures they believe women’s bodies, hair, and face must be covered at all times outside of the home when other cultures do not. Not every culture has the same beliefs. 2. Aristotle’s theory of Hylomorphism: The theory of Hylomorphism is Aristotle concept of people being both form and matter. Aristotle thought of form as the physical appearance (body) and the matter to be what the object consists of (soul). An example would be pavement. The unhardened clay would be the matter. The matter changes form when the clay hardens. 3....
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...The fall of Enron: Corporate Culture, Governance and Ethics Written By: Bilge-Kagan Ozturk 2007 Abstract This paper examines the critical importance of an ethically based corporate/organisational culture to ensuring company-wide ethical conduct. Testament to this topic I use the case of Enron and its ethical demise to successfully support my argument and highlight the need of top level management to be the main proponents of this culture to allow lower level employees to adopt a behaviour of moral reasoning. The body of the essay will highlight the importance of shaping an ethically based organisational culture, through a number of components, namely a company’s executive management team and its corporate governance system. I also briefly evaluate agency and stakeholder theories and how they relate to an organisational culture from an ethical perspective, and point out Enron’s culture was predominantly one of agency reasoning. Finally I provide a brief and direct conclusion to assert my argument that ethics needs to exist deep within an organisation’s culture and needs to be the key leading value of an organisation. A breakdown of ethics can eventually lead to the demise of a once very reputable and successful company. A great textbook example is of course, the fall of Enron – one of the biggest corporate bankruptcies in US history. Like most companies, Enron had a code of ethics in place and employees who were educated in the field of ethics, agency...
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