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The Happy Prince Oscar Wilde

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Definición Keynesiano.
Teoría económica basada en las ideas. Corriente de pensadores que siguieron el pensamiento de John M. Keynes.
El modelo Keynesiano se basó en la consideración de la renta nacional como dependiente de la demanda efectiva.
En consecuencia, el ingreso pasaba a depender de los componentes de dicha demanda. A su vez, el primero estaba determinado por la renta personal que se destina al mismo, mientras que la segunda estaba influenciada por la propensión a invertir, el multiplicador de la inversión y la relación entre la eficiencia marginal del capital y el tipo de interés.
El tipo de interés toma su valor de equilibrio entre la preferencia por la liquidez y la cantidad de dinero en circulación. Cuanta más alta fuera la diferencia entre la eficiencia marginal del capital y el tipo de interés, mayor será la propensión a invertir. De este modelo se desprendía pues, como medidas para la disminución del paro permanente involuntario, la adopción de una serie de políticas económicas intervencionistas, lo que provocaría un descenso del tipo de interés, aumento en el gasto publico especialmente en inversión en infraestructuras, con el fin de potenciar la demanda efectiva, una activa redistribución de la renta y, por último, una política comercial proteccionista, para defender los empleos de las industrias nacionales.
Algunas características de esta corriente pueden resumirse de la siguiente manera.
Características.
• Es una teoría macroeconómica.
• Su teoría es una refutación del liberalismo (laissez-faire), ya que apoya la intervención del Estado en la economía para impulsar la inversión.
• La teoría económica de Keynes lleva directamente a la política económica que el mismo recomienda.
• Su teoría pretende explicar cuales son los determinantes del volumen de empleo.
• La teoría keynesiana se enfoca hacia un equilibrio cambiante.
• El dinero juega un papel importante en su teoría, por lo que también se le llama a su teoría de la economía
Cuáles fueron las principales aportaciones de Keynes a la economía?
Keynes aportó con su Teoría General del Empleo, el Interés y el Dinero; Keynes presenta una teoría basada en la noción de demanda agregada para explicar la variación general de actividad económica, Según su teoría, el ingreso total de la sociedad está definido por la suma del consumo y la inversión; y en una situación de desempleo y capacidad productiva no utilizada, "solamente" pueden aumentarse el empleo y el ingreso total, incrementando primero los gastos, sea en consumo o en inversión.

¿Qué tiene que ver la gran depresión con Keynes?
Keynes publico una obra en que ayudaría salir más rápido de la depresión Aunque ya se estaba saliendo de la crisis, en este libro Keynes plantea principalmente lo siguiente:

1) El Estado debe intervenir en la economía para salir rápidamente de la crisis.

2) El Estado debe aumentar el gasto público con el objetivo de crear nuevos empleos, y mantener tasas de intereses que estimulen las inversiones.

3) Al aumentar los empleos, incrementa el ingreso de los hogares. Esto conlleva a un aumento del consumo por parte de los hogares y de la inversión por parte de las empresas.

De esta manera, se estimula la demanda agregada, lo cual propicia un aumento en la producción y en las inversiones. Esto conlleva a generar más puestos de trabajo.

Este ciclo se va repitiendo y la economía va creciendo cada vez más con mayores niveles de inversión y empleo.

4) El consumo depende de la propensión al consumo (tendencia natural de los ciudadanos a consumir determinados bienes y servicios) y de los ingresos de los hogares.

5) La inversión depende de los ingresos de los hogares, de las tasas de interés y de la eficiencia marginal del capital.

TEORIA KEYNESIANA.
Keynes.
Doctrina económica que surge en la primera mitad del siglo XX, su principal representante fue el economista inglés John Maynard Keynes (1883 – 1946).

Sus obras más famosas son: * Reforma Monetaria (1923) * La teoría general de la ocupación, el interés y el dinero (1936) * ¿Cómo pagar la guerra? (1940)
Agregados macroeconómicos de keynes. * Inversión * Ingreso * Consumo * Ocupación plena * Demanda efectiva * Ahorro interés.

Propensión a la inversión:
Se define como una función de inversión y significa la inversión efectiva realizada o que espera realizar a los diferentes niveles de ingreso.
Propensión al consumo:
No significa un mero deseo de consumir, sino el consumo efectivo que tiene lugar, o que se espera que tenga lugar, con las diferentes cantidades de la renta.
Propensión a la inversión:
Es la disposición de una parte de los ingresos para destinarlos al ahorro, determinada por factores subjetivos y objetivos.

Preferencia por la liquidez:
Keynes, considera que es una tendencia a guardar parte de las riquezas en activo monetario, esta preferencia se debe a tres motivos: a) Motivo transacción b) Motivo precaución c) Motivo especulación
El multiplicador de la inversión:
Significa que cuando la inversión aumenta, la renta nacional aumentará.
Efecto Multiplicador:
Son las consecuencias que ocurren en la inversión, en el empleo y en toda la economía, como consecuencia de un incremento en la inversión inicial.
Efecto Acelerador:
Son las consecuencias que ocurren en la demanda de bienes de inversión como resultado de un incremento en la inversión inicial
El multiplicador del empleo:
Indica el número de personas que se añadirán al empleo original, por cada uno que sea directamente empleado. Características de la teoría de Keynes. * Contribuyó con las bases de la teoría macroeconómica moderna * Refuta el liberalismo económico * Apoya la intervención del Estado en la economía * La inversión es básica para el nivel del empleo * Introdujo el multiplicador de la inversión * La teoría del interés basada en la preferencia de liquidez

Los postkeynesianos.
Roy F. Harrod (1900-1970)
Él considera que el crecimiento económico está relacionado con 3 factores: población, producto o ingreso por habitante y cantidad de trabajo disponible Francois Perroux (1903-1987)
La economía es la lucha permanente que liberan dominantes y dominados
Las empresas poderosas tratan de imponer sus propias decisiones a las de menor fortaleza.
Joan Robinson (1903)
Economista inglesa, se basa en los principios del Marxismo, nos dice que el capitalismo es un sistema transitorio
Joseph A. S (1883-1950)
Considerado como el principal exponente de la teoría de la innovación
La innovación es lo que hace que aumente la producción y da origen a la expansión de la producción, empleo y el ingreso en la economía. Michael Kalecki:
Egresado de Oxford y Cambridge, colaborador de la ONU, trató los temas: dinámica económica, ciclos económicos y el desarrollo económico. Ocupa un lugar central en la ciencia económica del siglo XX, con Keynes
“El esquema de la teoría del ciclo” publicado por primera vez bajo el título de
“Proba teorii koniunktury”, en Varsovia hacia 1933.
“El mecanismo del auge económico” publicado en el semanario Volsca
Gospodarcza en 1935, bajo el título de Koniunktura a bilans platniczy”.

Los Estructuralistas.
Economistas de América Latina que ven a los problemas de los países de esta región como estructurales, que se derivan del propio funcionamiento del sistema económico. Se desarrollaron después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, con auge en los años cincuenta, al agudizarse los problemas de América Latina, proponiendo varias formas para cambiar dicha situación.

Propuestas para acelerar el desarrollo: * Repartir justamente la tierra * Mejorar la producción y comercialización de productos agrícolas * Distribuir equitativamente el ingreso * Reformar la estructura de la economía internacional * Principales estructuralistas en América Latina.

* Raúl Prebish.
Obras:
* Crítica al Capitalismo periférico; * El desarrollo de América Latina y algunos de sus principales problemas; * Hacia una teoría de la transformación.

* Víctor L. Urquidi.
Obras:
* Viabilidad económica de América Latina

* Celso Furtado.
Obras:
* Teoría y política del desarrollo económico.

* Osvaldo Sunkel.
Obras:
* El subdesarrollo latinoamericano y la teoría del subdesarrollo (coautoría con Pedro Paz). * Aldo Ferrer.
Obras:
* Historia de la Globalización II; * Hechos y ficciones de la globalización; * Vivir con lo nuestro. * Nosotros y la globalización

* Leopoldo Solís
Obras:
* La realidad económica mexicana; * Retrovisión y perspectivas

El Neoliberalismo.
Es un fenómeno económico mundial que se basa en las nuevas formas de acumulación del capital a escala mundial, que implica la competitividad internacional, con la mínima presencia del control del gobierno y se de una liberalización del mercado.

Características: * Promoción de la libertad social a través de la libertad individual * Libertad e igualdad de oportunidades íntimamente relacionadas * Oposición a la discrecionalidad del gobierno * Existencia de la libertad individual sólo con política basada en la libertad

Como paradigma actual * Requiere sanear las finanzas públicas * Reducir el déficit fiscal * Disminuir el tamaño del Estado * Eliminar la participación del Estado en la actividad económica * Privatizar las empresas paraestatales * Recomienda la apertura total a la inversión extranjera, permitiendo el libre flujo de mercado y capitales * En países subdesarrollados esta corriente provoca retroceso económico, político y social * Rechaza al Estado regulador, promoviendo a uno vigilante de las leyes de mercado sin injerencia alguna * Se auto mantiene y justifica en la necesidad de abatir la inflación y el desempleo, incrementar la productividad y la competitividad internacional, concentrar esfuerzos contra la pobreza extrema y la necesidad de contar con los recursos financieros, la tecnología y los canales internacionales del capital extranjero
La escuela monetarista.
Economistas modernos con énfasis en el dinero y que siguen la tradición clásica.
Desarrollada en las tres últimas décadas por Milton Friedman (Ganador del premio Nobel de Economía en 1976), defensor de la teoría cuantitativa del dinero y el más importante expositor de la neoortodoxia.
Puntos esenciales: * La oferta monetaria es el principal determinante sistemático del crecimiento del PNB nominal. * Los precios y los salarios son relativamente flexibles. * El sector privado es estable
Rasgos distintivos: * Inclinación hacia el Estado pequeño y los libres mercados * Mayor énfasis en la contención de la inflación que en la reducción del desempleo * Deseo de evitar una política gubernamental activa, prefiriendo el imperio de la ley y la discreción de los hombres.

El modelo Friedman-Phelps, postula: * Que la economía es autorreguladora * Que los cambios en la oferta monetaria no afectan a variables reales, como el nivel de empleo y la producción, tras un periodo de ajuste o en el largo plazo.
Los keynesianos en su mayoría y los monetaristas opinan que: * En el largo plazo, la inflación es un fenómeno monetario * En el largo plazo, la flexibilidad en los salarios y en los precios será * suficiente para restablecer la economía a la tasa natural de desempleo y producción. las principales aportaciones de Keynes a la economía

Keynes aportó con su Teoría General del Empleo, el Interés y el Dinero; Keynes presenta una teoría basada en la noción de demanda agregada para explicar la variación general de actividad económica, Según su teoría, el ingreso total de la sociedad está definido por la suma del consumo y la inversión; y en una situación de desempleo y capacidad productiva no utilizada, "solamente" pueden aumentarse el empleo y el ingreso total, incrementando primero los gastos, sea en consumo o en inversión.

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...What is literature? * Creative writing of recognised artistic value. * Written works of fiction and non-fiction in which compositional excellence and advancement in the art of writing are higher priorities than are considerations of profit or commercial appeal. * Literature is literally "an acquaintance with letters" as in the first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary (from the Latin littera meaning "an individual written character (letter)"). The term has generally come to identify a collection of texts. The word literature as a common noun can refer to any form of writing, such as essays or poetry; Literature as a proper noun refers to a whole body of literary work, world-wide or relating to a specific culture... * lit·er·a·ture n. 1. The body of written works of a language, period, or culture. 2. Imaginative or creative writing, especially of recognized artistic value:"Literature must be an analysis of experience and a synthesis of the findings into a unity" 3. The art or occupation of a literary writer. 4. The body of written work produced by scholars or researchers in a given field: medical literature. 5. Printed material: All the available collected literature on the subject. 6. Music: All the compositions of a certain kind or for a specific instrument or ensemble: the symphonic literature. Good literature has something important to say about life. If we take the time to read and understand the literature...

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Literatura Proizvedeniia

...1. W. Shakespeare « Hamlet» (Renaissance) Character List Hamlet -  The Prince of Denmark, the title character, and the protagonist. About thirty years old at the start of the play, Hamlet is the son of Queen Gertrude and the late King Hamlet, and the nephew of the present king, Claudius. Hamlet is melancholy, bitter, and cynical, full of hatred for his uncle’s scheming and disgust for his mother’s sexuality. A reflective and thoughtful young man who has studied at the University of Wittenberg, Hamlet is often indecisive and hesitant, but at other times prone to rash and impulsive acts. Hamlet is extremely philosophical and contemplative. He is particularly drawn to difficult questions or questions that cannot be answered with any certainty. Faced with evidence that his uncle murdered his father, evidence that any other character in a play would believe, Hamlet becomes obsessed with proving his uncle’s guilt before trying to act. Claudius -  The King of Denmark, Hamlet’s uncle, and the play’s antagonist. The villain of the play, Claudius is a calculating, ambitious politician, driven by his sexual appetites and his lust for power, but he occasionally shows signs of guilt and human feeling—his love for Gertrude, for instance, seems sincere. Gertrude -  The Queen of Denmark, Hamlet’s mother, recently married to Claudius. Gertrude loves Hamlet deeply, but she is a shallow, weak woman who seeks affection and status more urgently than moral rectitude or truth. Polonius -  The...

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...Enotes… Arms and the Man | Introduction Shaw was already a celebrity arts critic and socialist lecturer when he wrote Arms and the Man in 1894. One of Shaw’s earliest attempts at writing for the theatre, it was also his first commercial success as a playwright. Although it played for only one season at an avant-garde theatre, thanks to the financial backing of a friend, it was later produced in America in 1895. Accustomed to the melodramas of the age, however, even sophisticated audiences often did not discern the serious purpose of Shaw’s play. Thus, Shaw considered it a failure. True success did not come until 1898, when Arms and the Man was published as one of the “pleasant” plays in Shaw’s collection called Plays: Pleasant and Unpleasant, and it subsequently gained popularity as a written work. Included in this collection of plays are lengthy explanatory prefaces, which note significant issues in the plays and which have been invaluable to critics. In place of brief stage directions, Shaw’s plays also included lengthy instructions and descriptions. Another unique aspect of Arms and the Man was its use of a woman as the central character. Set during the four-month-long Serbo-Bulgarian War that occurred between November 1885 and March 1886, this play is a satire on the foolishness of glorifying something so terrible as war, as well as a satire on the foolishness of basing your affections on idealistic notions of love. These themes brought reality and a timeless lesson...

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