...Explain the following; I. VLIW architecture II. Superscalar processor TABLE OF CONTENTS MOI UNIVERSITY................................................................1. QUESTION.............................................................................1. TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................2. INTRODUCTION....................................................................3. VERY LONG INSTRUCTION WORD...................................3. WHY VLIW?............................................................................4. IMPLEMENTATION ADVANTAGES OF VLIW.................5. SUPERSCALAR ......................................................................6. EXAMPLES OF SUPERSCALAR ORGANIZATION............7. HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE IDEA.........................................7. BASIC SUPERSCALAR CONCEPTS......................................8. CONCLUSION...........................................................................8. REFERENCES............................................................................9. INTRODUCTION In the mid 1990s, IC fabrication technology was advanced enough to allow unprecedented implementations of computer architectures on a single chip. Also, the current rate of process advancement allows implementations to be improved at a rate that is satisfying for most of the markets these implementations serve. In particular, the vendors of general-purpose microprocessors are competing...
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...INSTRUCTION SET The instruction set, also called instruction set architecture (ISA), is a part of the computer that pertains to programming, which is basically machine language. The collection of different instructions that the CPU can execute is referred to as the CPU’s instruction set. A machine instruction should contain the following elements: * Operation code: Specifies the operation to be performed. * Source operand reference: The reference to the operand should be there in the instruction. * Result operand reference: The address of the memory where output should be stored must be mentioned. * Next instruction reference: This tells CPU where to find the next instruction to be executed. All the machine instructions can be categorized in to the following types: * Data processing: This classification contains arithmetic instructions which provide computational capabilities for processing numeric data and logical instructions which operate on the bits of a word as bits. * Data storage: This classification contains instruction to store data in memory and the registers. * Data movement: This classification contains instructions to move data between memory and the registers. These instructions are also known as I/O instructions. * Control: This classification contains test instructions that are used to test the value of a data word or the status of a computation and branch instructions that are used to branch to a different set of instructions...
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...Null Pennsylvania State University Julia Lobur Pennsylvania State University World Headquarters Jones and Bartlett Publishers 40 Tall Pine Drive Sudbury, MA 01776 978-443-5000 info@jbpub.com www.jbpub.com Jones and Bartlett Publishers Canada 2406 Nikanna Road Mississauga, ON L5C 2W6 CANADA Jones and Bartlett Publishers International Barb House, Barb Mews London W6 7PA UK Copyright © 2003 by Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. Cover image © David Buffington / Getty Images Illustrations based upon and drawn from art provided by Julia Lobur Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Null, Linda. The essentials of computer organization and architecture / Linda Null, Julia Lobur. p. cm. ISBN 0-7637-0444-X 1. Computer organization. 2. Computer architecture. I. Lobur, Julia. II. Title. QA76.9.C643 N85 2003 004.2’2—dc21 2002040576 All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. Chief Executive Officer: Clayton Jones Chief Operating Officer: Don W. Jones, Jr. Executive V.P. and Publisher: Robert W. Holland, Jr. V.P., Design and Production: Anne Spencer V.P., Manufacturing and Inventory Control: Therese Bräuer Director, Sales and Marketing: William Kane Editor-in-Chief, College: J. Michael Stranz ...
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...concepts in microprocessor architectures are functional units, pipelines, caches, and buses. These factors determine how fast a processor will run and how efficiently it will communicate with the outside world. Functional units are subsystems of logic circuits that carry out a program’s instructions. Different types of functional units handle different instructions. Integer units handle fixed-point arithmetic and Boolean logic. Floating-point units handle more complex arithmetic operations, involving noninteger values. Load/store units load data from and store data to memory. Pipelines work like factory assembly lines. Each stage of the pipeline handles one relatively small and simple task that comprises part of the work needed to execute one computer instruction. A simple pipeline has four stages: fetch (retrieve an instruction from cache); decode (figure out what the instruction does); execute (carry out the instruction); and write back (store the result). Each pipeline stage usually takes one clock cycle. Most modern processors have superscalar pipelines, which are two or more pipelines arranged in parallel. That way, the processor can issue and complete multiple instructions in each clock cycle. The processor may also rearrange the instructions at execution time to put them in a more efficient order. This procedure is called dynamic execution. Modern processors can operate at speeds above 1 GHz. To maintain this rate, the processor must fetch a new instruction every nanosecond. Unfortunately...
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...by Belal Hashmi Compiled by Junaid Haroon Preface Assembly language programming develops a very basic and low level understanding of the computer. In higher level languages there is a distance between the computer and the programmer. This is because higher level languages are designed to be closer and friendlier to the programmer, thereby creating distance with the machine. This distance is covered by translators called compilers and interpreters. The aim of programming in assembly language is to bypass these intermediates and talk directly with the computer. There is a general impression that assembly language programming is a difficult chore and not everyone is capable enough to understand it. The reality is in contrast, as assembly language is a very simple subject. The wrong impression is created because it is very difficult to realize that the real computer can be so simple. Assembly language programming gives a freehand exposure to the computer and lets the programmer talk with it in its language. The only translator that remains between the programmer and the computer is there to symbolize the computer’s numeric world for the ease of remembering. To cover the practical aspects of assembly language programming, IBM PC based on Intel architecture will be used as an example. However this course will not be tied to a particular architecture as it is often done. In our view such an approach does not create versatile assembly language programmers...
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...CSE 6421 Research Assignment Explain how each architecture handles instruction fetch. ALPHA 21264: The instruction fetch is the stage 0 in Alpha 21264 instruction pipeline. It can fetch four instructions each cycle. It includes a branch predictor, two Mux for decode and validity check, a line/set prediction and an instruction cache. The branch prediction and the line/set prediction are used to increase fetch efficiency. The line and set prediction, associated with each instruction block, guides the professor to find the next instruction to fetch. The instruction cache is 64-Kbytes and two-way. Compared with Alpha 21164(8-Kbytes and direct-mapped), the hit rates increase significantly. Itanium 2: The instructions are fetched by the front-end structures. The instruction pointer is chosen from next linear IP, branch prediction resteer pointers or branch misprediction and instruction exception steer pointers by the front end and then presents to the instruction cache and translation look-aside buffer. The processor then uses prevalidated tags to decide to deliver instructions to which caches. In prevalidated tags design, the cache tags store the virtual address and compare with the identifier entry to find match line. It is faster to find out the cache hit address. MIPS R10000: The R10000 processor fetches...
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...COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE DESIGNING FOR PERFORMANCE EIGHTH EDITION William Stallings Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data On File Vice President and Editorial Director: Marcia J. Horton Editor-in-Chief: Michael Hirsch Executive Editor: Tracy Dunkelberger Associate Editor: Melinda Haggerty Marketing Manager: Erin Davis Senior Managing Editor: Scott Disanno Production Editor: Rose Kernan Operations Specialist: Lisa McDowell Art Director: Kenny Beck Cover Design: Kristine Carney Director, Image Resource Center: Melinda Patelli Manager, Rights and Permissions: Zina Arabia Manager, Visual Research: Beth Brenzel Manager, Cover Visual Research & Permissions: Karen Sanatar Composition: Rakesh Poddar, Aptara®, Inc. Cover Image: Picturegarden /Image Bank /Getty Images, Inc. Copyright © 2010, 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 07458. Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department. Pearson Prentice Hall™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson® is a registered trademark of...
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...a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem. Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from external source, and allow the results of operations to be sent out. A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment. The first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).[1] Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers...
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...Hewlett-Packard Table of Contents Cover image Title page In Praise of Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface, Fifth Edition Front-matter Copyright Dedication Acknowledgments Preface About This Book About the Other Book Changes for the Fifth Edition Changes for the Fifth Edition Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments for the Fifth Edition 1. Computer Abstractions and Technology 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Eight Great Ideas in Computer Architecture 1.3 Below Your Program 1.4 Under the Covers 1.5 Technologies for Building Processors and Memory 1.6 Performance 1.7 The Power Wall 1.8 The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to Multiprocessors 1.9 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Intel Core i7 1.10 Fallacies and Pitfalls 1.11 Concluding Remarks 1.12 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 1.13 Exercises 2. Instructions: Language of the Computer 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Operations of the Computer Hardware 2.3 Operands of the Computer Hardware 2.4 Signed and Unsigned Numbers 2.5 Representing Instructions in the Computer 2.6 Logical Operations 2.7...
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...completely overtaken all other CPU implementations. The CPU itself is an internal component of the computer. Modern CPUs are small and square and contain multiple metallic connectors or pins on the underside. The CPU is inserted directly into a CPU socket, pin side down, on the motherboard. Each motherboard will support only a specific type (or range) of CPU, so you must check the motherboard manufacturer's specifications before attempting to replace or upgrade a CPU in your computer. Modern CPUs also have an attached heat sink and small fan that go directly on top of the CPU to help dissipate heat. A central processing unit (CPU), also referred to as a central processor unit, is the hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s.[2] The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains much the same. A computer can have more than one CPU; this is called multiprocessing. All modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning contained on a single chip. Some integrated circuits (ICs) can contain multiple CPUs on...
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...products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption. [edit] Embedded design A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.[1] The majority of microcontrollers in use today are...
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...INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FROM TATA CMC, JAMMU ON EMBEDDED SYSTEMS. Submitted in the partial fulfilment of requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering In Electronics and Communication Engineering Submitted By Ashish Gupta 258/12 Under the guidance of Ms. Sonika Mahajan IT Guide Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering Mahant Bachittar Singh College of Engineering and Technology, Jammu 2015 CERTIFICATE i DECLARATION I hereby declare that the Seminar Report entitled “EMBEDDED SYSTEMS” is an authentic record of my own work carried out as requirement for the award of degree of B.E. (E&C) of Mahant Bachittar Singh College of Engineering & Technology, Jammu. Date: ................ Ashish Gupta 258/12 Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of my knowledge and belief. Ms. Sonika Mahajan Ms. Neha Gupta Ms. Shalini Sharma IT Guide ...
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...Von Neumann architecture CIS106 11/12/13 Von Neumann architecture marks the beginning modern information system processing. To fully understand why it is so important, we must first consider the purpose of computer programs. We can then fathom the magnitude of this architecture. The von Neumann architecture allows instructions and data to be mixed and stored in the same memory module and the contents of this memory are addressed by location only. This all takes place in a sequential order. The Von Neumann machine had five basic parts comprised of memory, ALU, the program control unit, input equipment & output equipment. The programs uses a language that to the naked eye can in most cases resemble spoken language. Upper-level languages such as C and Java are designed with this in mind. However, computers understand natural language without significant human effort. The physical hardware cannot truly understand language, but instead processes electrical signals. Computer programs are a list of and data, and are represented as binary strings. We can produce a list of high level requirements that a Central Processing Unit (CPU) could execute. This then leads us to a list of functional units that implement the high-level functionality. Neumann m/c are called control flow computer because instruction are executed sequentially as controlled by a program counter. To increase the speed, parallel processing of computer have been developed in which serial CPU’s are connected...
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...Chapter 10 Instruction Sets: Characteristics and Functions What is an instruction set? - The complete collection of instructions that are understood by a CPU - is the part of the computer architecture related to programming, including the native data types, instructions, registers,addressing modes, memory architecture, interrupt and exception handling, and external I/O. An ISA includes a specification of the set of opcodes (machine language), and the native commands implemented by a particular processor. - Machine Code - Binary - Usually represented by assembly codes Elements of an Instruction -Operation code (Op code) - Do this - Specifies the operation to be performed (e.g.. ADD, I/O). The operation is specified by a binary code, known as the operation code, or opcode. - Source Operand reference - To this - The operation may involve one or more source operands, that is, operands that are inputs for the operation. - Result Operand reference - Put the answer here - The operation may produce a result. - Next Instruction Reference - When you have done that, do this... - This tells the CPU where to fetch the next instruction after the execution of this instruction is complete. Where have all the Operands gone? - The next instruction to be fetched is located in main memory or, in the case of a virtual memory system, in either main memory or secondary memory (disk). In most cases, the next instruction to be fetched immediately follows...
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...1 Civilization advances by extending the number of important operations which we can perform without thinking about them. Alfred North Whitehead, An Introduction to Mathematics, 1911 Computer Abstractions and Technology 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Eight Great Ideas in Computer Architecture 11 1.3 Below Your Program 13 1.4 Under the Covers 16 1.5 Technologies for Building Processors and Memory 24 1.6 Performance 28 1.7 The Power Wall 40 1.8 The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to Multiprocessors 43 1.9 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Intel Core i7 46 1.10 Fallacies and Pitfalls 49 1.11 Concluding Remarks 52 1.12 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 54 1.13 Exercises 54 1.1 Introduction Welcome to this book! We’re delighted to have this opportunity to convey the excitement of the world of computer systems. This is not a dry and dreary field, where progress is glacial and where new ideas atrophy from neglect. No! Computers are the product of the incredibly vibrant information technology industry, all aspects of which are responsible for almost 10% of the gross national product of the United States, and whose economy has become dependent in part on the rapid improvements in information technology promised by Moore’s Law. This unusual industry embraces innovation at a breath-taking rate. In the last 30 years, there have been a number of new computers whose introduction...
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