One may remember the score to last year’s basketball game but forget a mother’s birthday. Remember faces, but not names. To be presented with so many pieces of information daily, the struggle to retain information plagues everyone. Why do we forget information that we try so hard to remember? Thorough case studies have been performed and a few prevailing theories about why this is and ways to reduce habits of forgetting have emerged. Memory is attributed to the functioning of three stages: encoding – the process of storing data, storage – the process of retaining data, and retrieval - the process of recovering data. Several factors are tied together and influence forgetting. It can happen before or even after the actual memory process.
Keywords: memory process, encoding, storage, retrieval
Why We Forget
Forgetting is the loss of information stored in an individual’s memory. It’s the process in which older memories cannot be recalled from ones memory databank. Research studied by Edward Thorndike which was compiled in his novel “The Psychology of Learning” in 1914 shows one possible explanation: “The Decay Theory of Forgetting” found that there is a theory to explain this behavior. Over time, if the specific memory isn’t recalled and an effort isn’t made to preserve the notion or event, it will fade with time. If an attempt of recalling a memory is not made within a certain timeframe the memory will fade to darkness. Another theory known as “Interference Theory” was realized by the German psychologist Bergstrom, it is suggested that some memories compete and affect other memories. (Paul Connerton, 2008, “Seven Types of Forgetting”) When information is very similar to other information already stored in memory, interference or some kind of static is most likely to occur. Proactive interference is when an older memory makes it more difficult or almost impossible to remember a newer memory. Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with your ability to remember previously learned memories or information. Sometimes losing information or certain details has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it might have never made it to your long term memory in the first place.
Controversy and Definitions
Forgetting things can mean one of several different things. It can mean access problems, availability problems, encoding problems, rehearsal problems or other reasons such as amnesia caused by an accident. (Wixed, J. 2004 “The Psychology and Neuroscience of forgetting.”) A popular and extremely debatable concept, “trace decay” can occur with short term and long term memories. This theory is contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike still even after not doing so for a long period of time. It’s strongly believed that some memories “trace decay” while others do not. (Hockenbury, Sandra, 2010) Research shows that sleep plays a big role in trace decay. The exact reasoning of this is still unknown. This theory also shows that your short term memory can only hold certain memories for a limited amount of time, and if not frequently accessed, will eventually fade away. One problem discovered about this theory is that in a real life situation the time in between encoding and recalling a memory will be filled with different events that may or may not happen to the person, making it harder to conclude that forgetting is indeed a result of the time period. (Paul Connerton, 2008 “Seven Types of Forgetting”) According to Paul, there are 7 types of forgetting. He suggests that forgetting isn’t a type of failure, but more so actions that lead to it. Repressive erasure is used by getting rid of every image or anything else that could possibly remind the person of a specific image or event. Prescriptive forgetting is when a person agrees to forget about a specific event in order to function more efficiently. An example would be that a classroom agrees to forget about a certain security issue to continue having the peace of mind that it is safe to return back into the classroom. Forgetting that is a constitutive in the formation of a new identity. This occurs when a person has the idea of forgetting their past identity to continue with a new one. Structural amnesia is when a person only remembers people who are socially important (John Barnes, “Genealogy”.) Forgetting as annulment is when useless information is discarded. Forgetting as planned obsolescence happens when a product is not meant to last long, but is continued to be bought by customers who tend to forget its previous failure. Forgetting as humiliated silence happened when there is a mishap where one becomes embarrassed and the idea of forgetting it gives ease.

History and Experiments
A German psychologist, Hermann Ebbinghaus was one of the first to scientifically study forgetting and was the sole subject in an experiment he conducted. He memorized lists of three letter syllable words, he then measured his own capacity to relearn a list of words after a given time period. He tested his memory for periods of time ranging from 20 minutes to 31 days. He found that forgetting occurs in a systematic manner, it begins fast and then it levels off. His methods were primitive, but his basic thoughts and research have held true today and have been reaffirmed. The “Ebbinghaus forgetting curve” is the name of his results. He came to two conclusions: The first was that much of what we actually forget is lost very soon after its first learned, and the second that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off. He then published his findings in 1885 in “Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology.”

Another experiment was conducted by Blasko, an associate professor of psychology at Penn State, and colleague Michael Hall of the University of Nevada. They overloaded their subjects’ brains with information and then tried to point out what caused the memory system to breakdown. They hoped to discover the relationship of working memory as well as the differences in “working memory” of each person. “It’s clear that we can’t focus on everything in our environment at once,” said Blasko. “We are quickly overburdened. What we call working memory is the information we are actively thinking about and processing at any given moment.” Blasko also believes that if you forget something. It’s because you never truly acquired the information in the first place, or because you learned it during a short period of time and did not properly encode the data. It’s known that if you really encode the information well, meaning make an effort to remember the information, or place significance to the information. Even using techniques to not forget. For example, rehearsal is the review or practice of the material while you are learning it.
Organic Causes of Forgetting. In some cases, forgetting occurs through physiological damage to the brain. This implies with information that was already retained in long term memory or the inability to encode information again. Dementia is a serious loss of cognitive ability – affected cognitive areas can be memory, attention, language, and problem solving (Calleo J, Stanley M., 2008.) It’s common in the older population, however it can occur before the age of 65. In later stages the person diagnosed may not know what day, time, or even year it is. Fewer than 10% of cases are due to causes that may be reversed with treatment (Sadock, Benjamin James Sadock, Virginia Alcott, 2008.) Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia. In the early stages, symptoms are forgetting recent events. As it progresses, it then affects ones long term memory. There is no cure, and leads to death. It was first discovered by Alois Alzheimer in 1906. (Berchtold NC, Cotman CW, 1998.) It’s most often diagnosed in people over 65 years of age. Amnesia is a deficit in one’s memory caused by brain damage, disease or a trauma. It can also be caused by the use of sedatives and hypnotic drugs. There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an accident or operation. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short term memory into the long term storage (Schacter, Daniel. L “Psychology”.) Theodule-Armand Ribot, a French psychologist was one of the first to study amnesia. He implied that with amnesia, the most recent memories are lost first. The slowing down of the central nervous system due to aging is also an example. As people age, their brain and nervous system go through changes that are natural. The brain and spinal cord lose some nerve cells. They may begin to transmit messages more slowly than they have in the past. Some slight slowing of the memory is a sign of aging, but should also be checked by a doctor to avoid any misconceptions, according to “Health Central.”

Strategies to Use. To remember information better, one should learn to encode it properly. Sometimes this happens without effort, like what time class starts. This information is typically remembered easily, without effort. However, for some information, effective encoding is necessary (Carole Wade, “Invitation to Psychology”, 2012.) Label key points, make up rhymes, or place an importance on the information such as relating it to a personal experience. Encoding specificity theory helps take into play the context cues with its focus on the retrieval process, and also for the fact that the memory may not always be superior enough to recall (Tulving, E., Thomson, M., 1973.) An extremely important method for keeping information in your short term memory with the hope that it will have long term retention is rehearsal. This is the review or practice of information while learning it. There are two main ways of practicing rehearsal: Maintenance rehearsal - repetition of the material, and elaborative rehearsal – associating new information with material that has already been stored. Another key technique to help recall memories is to take advantage of mnemonic devices. Mnemonic devices are a cognitive strategy that helps individuals memorize and recall certain information (Bermingham, D. Hill R. D. Woltz and Gardner, M. K., 2013.) An example of this would be “PEMDAS” or Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally; a device for arithmetic problem solving. Using words what go together nicely, or that are easier to remember. Encoding becomes stronger and even more organized to be able to remember and process information.
Sleep has been identified by scientists that it’s the state where the body consolidates newly acquired information and stores it as a memory. Getting enough restful sleep is a key ingredient to improving memory. Nutrition is also believed to play a big role in our memory. A recent study in 2010 by Robert Krikorian and his colleagues pointed out that eating blueberries may help boost memory. The study included a group of adults in their 70s with early memory decline. They drank 2-2 ½ cups of blueberry juice every day for two months. It showed significant improvement on learning and memory tests. Lastly, meditation is another way to improve memory. It thickens a part of the brain’s cerebral cortex responsible for attention and memory.
So why do we forget the things we wish to remember? Failing to remember an event doesn’t mean that it’s gone forever. It could just mean that it wasn’t encoded properly, or rehearsed well enough. However, as research has shown, there’s several health behaviors that can prevent forgetting so often. The simplest ways being to get enough sleep and by staying healthy. Make sure the information is encoded properly, or chances are the information will be forgotten. Understanding before trying to remember can also prevent forgetting. Select the most interesting points and make them have a significance in a way that will be easier to remember – give the brain a reason not to forget. Don’t overload the memory, it can only handle so much. Things like Alzheimer’s disease, Dementia, and amnesia are pretty much out of our reach, but small health choices such as diet and active level can reduce the risk. Forgetting a birthday could always be a part of the human life, but our brains are very powerful, and with today’s research it shows that there’s a few tricks to help your brain remember things better.
References
1. Novel “The Psychology of Learning” Edward Thorndike. 2. Paul Connerton, 2008, “Seven Types of Forgetting” Pages 59-71. 3. Wixed, J. 2004 “The Psychology and Neuroscience of forgetting.” Pages 235-269. 4. Hockenbury, Sandra, 2010. 5. John Barnes, “Genealogy”. 6. Hermann Ebbinghaus “Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology.”1885. 7. Calleo J, Stanley M., 2008. 8. Sadock, Benjamin James Sadock, Virginia Alcott, 2008. 9. Berchtold NC, Cotman CW, 1998. 10. Schacter, Daniel. L “Psychology”. 11. Carole Wade, “Invitation to Psychology”, 2012 Pages 263-295. 12. 2010 Robert Krikorian. 13. Tulving, E., Thomson, M., 1973 “Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory Pages 352-373. 14. Bermingham, D. Hill R. D. Woltz and Gardner, M. K., 2013 “Cognitive Stragety Use and Measured Numeric Ability in Immediate and Long term Recall of Everyday Numeric Information” Pages 1-10.
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