...A DNA strand contains a complete representation of everything about our bodies. It also contains instructions on how to form our body by repeated divisions of a single cell. Each cell needs to know when it should split into two different kinds of cell for tissue differentiation. Cells also need to know when to stop growing because the body or organ is mature, and when it needs to replace tissue lost by injury. All of that is encoded into one molecule. The benefit of squeezing a lot of data into our cells is that our cell knows what to do and when to do it each time. DNA contains instructions on how to make proteins. Each cell uses its own DNA to make proteins which it needs to do its job. Other parts of the DNA tell the body what cells to make, but even this job is done by other cells, which split, differentiate and turn into organs because of the instruction in DNA. That's why it is in every cell, and not in some central place, because every cell was split off from some other cell that also had a full set of its own DNA. The 4 bases of DNA lead to very complicated proteins according to set rules. DNA has four bases, represented by the letters A, T, C and G; the initials are of the chemical names for those bases. They are arranged in groups of three, each group being called a codon. So ATA is one codon and CGT is another. Even with only four letters, you can get many codons and very complicated instructions. It’s worth my time to learn about DNA and everything it takes to go into...
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...DNA in Forensic Science DNA is the carrier of genetic information in humans and other living organisms. It has become a very useful tool in forensic science since it was discovered. In forensic science, DNA testing is used to compare the genetic structure of two individuals to establish whether there is a genetic relationship between them. One example of the use of DNA in forensic science that is important in biology today is comparing a suspect’s DNA profile to DNA that was discovered at a crime scene. This can be done by DNA fingerprinting or by collection of body fluids, such as saliva, semen, urine, blood, skin and hair, found at the scene. Secondly, DNA testing can rule out possible suspects as well. DNA testing can be used to free individuals...
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...Gene Editing: Cures or Scary Science? Humans around the world have much in common but also have an enormous diversity. Some of our differences come from the environment and our life experiences. Gene editing or Genome engineering is the insertion or deletion of a certain DNA cell. The science of refining genes has substantially increased the wipeout of genetic diseases and techniques for disorders not genetically found. “Genetic Engineering has developed and modified the way to discover improved treatments for people with genetic HIV, blindness, familial hypercholesterolemia, Sickle-cell anemia, and Hemophilia”(Friedman, L.). Significantly our genes produce an important contribution towards human behavior and cognition. Humanity has a long history of figuring out ways to modify genes. With gene editing not only has there been a great leap forward, but has the potential to make big changes in our lives. One of the biggest achievements in history...
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...1970’s. During the 1980’s the first transgenic mice via microinjection, which is the most performed technique. In 1985, the first transgenic sheep, rabbits, pigs and cattle were created, and in the 1990’s transgenic farm animal companies were seen as bioreactors and organ donors. The main logic of genetically altering animals is some transgenic animals are produced for specific economic traits. An example could be that a transgenic goat was created to produce milk containing specific human proteins that led to the treatment of diarrhea in kids from a third world country. A transgenic animal as said before is an animal that has been genetically altered so that it will produce a specific protein. This happens by foreign DNA being inserted into the animals’ DNA which scientists use to study human diseases that the animals are not normally susceptible to. In the Transgenic article, there are two methods...
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...History and Development of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) LAS 432 History and Development of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) Introduction Human beings continuously try to incorporate knowledge of nature through science to help mitigate the challenges they face. Science has benefits as seen in the developments in the modern world, in-terms of food production and mechanization. In the 19th century, the industrialization took over from Agrarian revolution in the agricultural sector. Agriculture was the main economic activity that drove the development from food production. Industrialization brought about increased productivity in the agricultural sector with abandonment of the traditional practices to embracing modern technology. This came to be referred as biotechnology. Biotechnology was the incorporation modern technology in food production to reduce costs and increase output. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are organisms with modified genetic material for desirable traits n production, drought resistant and pest resistant. From traditional practices, selective breeding practices have continuously improved the agricultural sector (Liang, & Skinner, 2004). Selective breeding is the control of breeding in plants and animals by taking the desired and high producing plants for the hybrid to have the best produce overtime. Researchers took selective breeding in the 20th century to understand...
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...2. Read the Article: “Functions and Utility of Alu Jumping Genes”. As you read, answer the following questions (they go paragraph by paragraph and will help you understand the reading). Introductory paragraph: In your own words, define an Alu element? Alu elements are DNA sequences that are phenotypically usless bye genotypically significant. They can replicate with the help of various enzymes and incerts themselfs into new locations of the genome. What types of organisms have Alu elements? only primates Short Interspersed Elements (SINEs): The Alu Example Describe how a retrotransposon is replicated. It is transcribed into mRNA by RNA polymerase and then converted into a DNA molecule by reverse transcriptase. What does it mean to be...
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... Abstract Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is greatly used in molecular genetics. It entails amplification of a single DNA strand into millions of similar DNA fragments. It involves three stages in each cycle. It is repeated to about 30 cycles. This method is vital as it is used in various processes such molecular identification, genetic engineering, and sequencing. The three stages in each cycle have varying duration and temperature. A thermal cycler is involved in the regulation of temperature in various stages. Over time, various modifications have been done to PCR technique so that it can be applied in specific roles. The PCR has been of aid in the diagnosis of diseases and other numerous applications. In the near future, PCR will be advanced and perhaps replaced by better techniques. Nevertheless, PCR will remain critical for future advancements in molecular genetics. Introduction Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is broadly employed by scientists in biochemistry and molecular biology. Thus, its essence cannot be underestimated in the development of genetic analysis and gene manipulation. The technique was established by Karry Mullis in the early 1980s. It entails amplification of a single or several DNA fragments into millions of identical copies of DNA. The process is done by repeated number of cycles that range between 30 to 40. This results into a chain reaction. The automated machine used in the cycling process...
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...DNA vs. RNA Dustin D. Napier Computer Science Degree Grantham University DNA vs. RNA DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, while RNA is ribonucleic acid. DNA is a double strand and RNA is a single strand. Although DNA and RNA both carry genetic information, there are quite a few differences between them. The following information will describe the differences between DNA and RNA DNA DNA contains long-term storage of genetic information; transmission of genetic information to make other cells and new organisms. DNA is a double strand that has a long chain of nucleotides. DNA has a composition of bases and sugars. They are deoxyribose sugar, phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine bases. DNA is also self-replicating. DNA has adenine-thymine also known as AT and guanine-cytosine also known as GC. DNA has a bond that make it very stable. The bond is a C-H bond. DNA has small grooves that serve as protection and minimal space for enzymes to attach to the strand its self. DNA is vulnerable to Ultraviolet that would cause damage to the strand. RNA RNA transfers the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome and that produces proteins. RNA transfers genetic information in some specimens. RNA in some cases is what molecule was used to store genetic blue prints in prime organisms. RNA is a single strand and the helix consists of short chains of nucleotides. RNA has a composition of bases and sugars. They are ribose sugar, phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine...
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...Genetics is the science of heredity. Genetics are important to all living things because it is their genes and shows what they look like and how they act. Biological traits are stored in DNA and can be passed on to successive generations through meiosis, which increases genetic variability. DNA stores and transmits genetic information to the next generation. The structure of DNA is double stacked and double helix. Genetic information is stored is stored in DNA chromosomes in 23 pairs. DNA transmits information to the next generation through cellular division. Meiosis increases reproductive variability through crossing-over. Meiosis is the reproduction of gametes (sex cells). Crossing-over is the exchange of chromosomal segments between a pair of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis. Crossing-over helps variability in cells because it makes the cell different and more adaptable to new or different environments. DNA alternations such as insertions, deletions, and substitutions can cause the appearance of new traits. Insertions are pieces or a piece of DNA copied too many times. Deletions are pieces or a piece of DNA code for one gene is lost. Substitutions change one base for another. These 3 alternations cause new traits to appear by making too many or not enough DNA. Sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction both have advantages and disadvantages. 2 advantages of sexual reproduction are that the offspring is not identical in looks and DNA. Another advantage...
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...DNA Worksheet Crystal Noel SCI/230 25 April 2014 Frederick Carlisle, MS DNA Worksheet Answer the following in at least 100 words: 1. Describe the structure of DNA. * The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the biological instructions of making each creature their own unique species. DNA is made up of chemical blocks called nucleotides. These blocks are made up of three parts: a phosphate group, a sugar group, and one of four types of bases (Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C)) which is the biological instructions are contained in a strand of DNA (National Human Genome Research Institute, 2012). Each DNA contains instructions to produce protein known as a gene, which size may vary ranging from about 1,000 bases to 1 million bases in bases. DNA is formed in a two-step process in which the enzymes that read the information in a DNA molecules and translated into a messager ribonucleic acid (mRNA). 2. How does an organism’s genotype determine its phenotype? * An organism’s genotype determines its phenotype by the specific alleles which are alternative forms of the same gene that occupies the same location on a chromosome. There are two alleles (one on each chromosome in the pair) resulting one allele from your mother and one allele from your father. These alleles may be the same or may be different. From the different alleles of a gene serves as the same function but produces phenotypes depending on which set of...
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... telling about DNA that was found in the leg bone of a 400,000 year-old fossil. This is a huge development since scientists have not been able to find DNA in fossils older than 60,000 years (Rincon, 2013). The bone described in this article was found in Spain in an area referred to as the ‘Pit of Bones’(Rincon, 2013). This is a cave where the remains of 28 people were found. The ‘Pit of Bones’ is located near Burgos in Northern Spain (Rincon, 2013). The bones were found to be of ancient people who lived in the Middle Pleistocene Age. For scientists, accessing these bones was not an easy task as the cave is hidden and is only accessible through ropes and tunnels. One of the most important renowned characteristics of DNA is that it breaks down as time passes. It is therefore fairly difficult to access DNA as old as 400,000 years (Rincon, 2013). However, as reported in this article, technology has helped scientists to make such discoveries as the one described herein. The scientists who made this discovery were also able to come up with a sequence of mitochondrial DNA from the femur, although it was incomplete. This sequence showed a relationship with 40,000 year-old fossils found in Siberia (Rincon, 2013). The cause of this relationship is said to be interbreeding across ancient populations from different regions. The scientists also related the DNA acquired to the Homo antecessor, an ancient human species. The next step from this discovery is to find nuclear DNA that is more helpful...
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...biological data. In this, computers are used in gathering, storing, analysis and the merging of biological data. Bioinformatics is not a research area by itself but lies between biological sciences and computational sciences. The main goal of bioinformatics is to review the value of biological information that is hidden in the large amount of data come up a clear picture of the basic biology of organisms. There are several fields that have been revolutionized by the technology used in bioinformatics (Ouzounis & Christos, 2012). These fields include human health, the environment, agriculture, energy and biotechnology. This science of bioinformatics is also called computational biology and has found a lot of use in increasing the quality of life. Bioinformatics developed due to the great need to internalize the DNA which is the code of life. Growth in the field of bioinformatics has been facilitated by development of many DNA sequencing projects. The basic biology of life is controlled by the basic molecule of life called DNA. The DNA acts as the blue print for genes which code for proteins. The proteins coded for by these genes determine the biological composition of all the living organisms. The variation and errors that occur in the replication, transcription and translation of genomic DNA determines whether one develops a certain disease or resistance to the same disease (Vivian, Lópe, Luis, María ,Moreno, & Corchado, 2012). Bioinformatics is currently in use and more uses...
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...people in the United States. To be exonerated of a crime means that a person is acquitted for their crime and released back into society. These wrongful convictions are due to unvalidated or improper forensic science, eyewitness misidentification, and false confessions. In this paper I am going to tell the story of Clarence Elkins and why wrongfully convicting a person is a problem in the United States. It all started on June 6th, 1998 in Summit County, Ohio. Clarence Elkins’ niece was sleeping over at her grandmother’s house, only to be woken in the middle of the night to hearing her grandmother screaming. So his niece ran into the kitchen to see her grandmother being beaten by a man. She ran back into her bedroom to be followed by this man. The niece was sexually assaulted by him. Her next memory was waking up to see her grandmother dead in the kitchen. She then proceeded to run to her neighbor’s house to call the cops. While the cops were on the way the niece proceeded to tell her neighbors that the man she saw last night looked like her uncle Clarence Elkins. Elkins was immediately brought in for questioning and he was the police’s number one suspect. Biological evidence, including hairs, was found at the crime scene and from the victim’s body. Mitochondrial DNA testing was done on pubic hairs from the victim’s bodies. This testing excluded Elkins as a possible contributor of the hairs. The only piece of evidence that was presented to the jury was the testimony of...
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...kinetics. Other advances in scanning probe microscopy include entropic brushes, molecular sandwiches and applications of atomic force microscopy to gene therapy. Address Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 1998, 2:579–584 http://biomednet.com/elecref/1367593100200579 © Current Biology Ltd ISSN 1367-5931 Abbreviations AFM atomic force microscopy/microscope SFM scanning force microscopy/microscope SICM scanning ion conductance microscopy/microscope SPM scanning probe microscopy/microscope STM scanning tunneling microscopy/microscope A new journal, Probe Microscopy, was launched in 1997 as a forum specifically devoted to the science and technology of SPM. AFM and SFM have been also newsworthy items in Science and Nature in the past year [14••,15•–17•,18••,19]. An introduction to AFM is covered well in a recent issue of Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, which describes and illustrates the design and mode of operation of AFM [4••]. The AFM images sample surfaces by raster-scanning a sharp tip back and forth over the surface. The tip is on a cantilever that responds to height changes on the sample surface in a way that generates a topographical map of the surface. We build on this excellent introduction by presenting some of the many advances in SPM that have occurred since that review was written. (The accompanying images are from AFM research in the authors’ lab). Atomic force microscopy imaging Proteins...
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...In 1950, the curiosity, innovation, and persistence of James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin all together led to a detailed and completed understanding of the structure of Deoxyribonucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material found in all cells and is the stuff that genes are made out of. Their discoveries would come to answer one of the most impending questions in the science of life. How do living things pass on traits to their children? This is the question that sparked the want and need of exploration and discovery. James Watson and Francis Crick are the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA in 1953. Rosalind Franklin was collecting experimental data about DNA with Maurice Wilkins. Watson...
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