...EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS FOR RESEARCH Causality Experimental Designs Control Group Pre-test/Post-test Design Threats to Internal Validity Threats to External Validity Post-Test only Control Group Design CAUSALITY To establish whether two variables are causally related, that is, whether a change in the independent variable X results in a change in the dependent variable Y, you must establish: 1) time order--The cause must have occurred before the effect; 2) co-variation (statistical association)-- Changes in the value of the independent variable must be accompanied by changes in the value of the dependent variable; 3) rationale-- There must be a logical and compelling explanation for why these two variables are related; 4) non-spuriousness-- It must be established that the independent variable X, and only X, was the cause of changes in the dependent variable Y; rival explanations must be ruled out. To establish causality, one must use an experimental or quasi-experimental design. Note that it is never possible to prove causality, but only to show to what degree it is probable. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS True experimental designs include: Pre-test/Post-test control group design Solomon Four-Group design Post-test only control group design Pre-test/Post-test control group design This is also called the classic controlled experimental design, and the randomized pre-test/post-test design because it: 1) Controls the assignment of subjects to...
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...Experimental music in the English –language literature refers to a compositional tradition which started in the mid 20th century, particularly used in North America to music composed in such a way that the outcome is unforeseeable. Famously known for the exposure of this genre was John Cage (1912-1992), an American composer, philosopher, poet and music theorist. According to Cage’s definition “an experimental action is one the outcome of which is not foreseen”. He had a great interest in completing works that performed an unpredictable action. “Experimental music” has also been used in music journalism as a general term of condemned or disapproved music departing from traditional norms. From the “experimental music” there came the following concepts of Aleatoric Music, Indeterminate Music, Graphic notation and Microtones. Aleatoric Music, a form for which Cage was known to be the pioneer of is referred to as a strictly limited form of indeterminacy, also called “controlled chance”. Indeterminate music, “chance music”, is one in which composers introduce the elements of chance or unpredictability with regard to either the composition or its performance. Graphic notation is music written in the form of diagrams or drawings rather than using “conventional” notation (staves, clefs, notes, etc). Microtone refers to a pitch interval that is smaller than a semitone, it includes quarter tones and intervals even smaller. At the end of the 1960’s rock groups like the Beatles and the...
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...Experimental Research Sherry Ramos Resurreccion PSY/285 10/12/2014 April Kindell Experimental Research When studying human subject the purpose of this type of research is so that we can gain knowledge of new things in our world, which we would obtain information that is beyond what our human minds already know. The objective of research is to extend the knowledge of our physical, biological and social world. I am a High School teacher that will be conducting a research to determine whether using antibacterial gels will prevent me from catching a cold or the flu. When conducting my Experimental research, the information that I will cover is a hypothesis, randomization of testing, a control group, a treatment group, and the results of the experiment that was conducted and the measurement, which is that variable that will be examined to determine the success of the experiment. My hypothesis is that "antibacterial gels will prevent teachers from getting a cold or the flu". A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction and or explanation that explains the reason a certain things reacts that way that it does. When conducting an experimental research you will need to test your hypothesis, you can test your hypothesis by examining the results that were conducted and exam how they relate in our society. Having a hypothesis is important because they allow us to test a theory, and predictions give direction to research. The next process is randomization. In this process...
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...Experimental Experiment In this short report I will be utilizing the scientific method to help solve problems that I have been having with my mode of transportation. I will be starting with a question and moving through the method to produce an experiment that I will conduct on my Honda CBR 600RR to attempt to fix a coolant leak. I have already started my process of elimination by checking, testing, and replacing key components of the coolant system the runs through the front end of my motorcycle. Some of the things I have tried is pulling out the radiator to check if there has been any damage done due to weather or rock chipping from high speed travel, after that proved not to be the problem I started going down the line. The question I imposed when first starting was “Why and where is this coolant leak and how can I fix it?” My hypothesis this time around is that maybe the coolant reservoir is compromised from overheating, damage or old age. So first I must do some research and find a new reservoir to put into my motorcycle, after removing the reservoir I was able to find a part number that I could give to Honda Motor Sports in order to find a fitting part. Now to design and conduct the experiment, this will require a specific set of tools, some spare parts and 4 hours of time. First I will follow a method that is used as part of a lean production system call PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act), this is a check list I use to help me solve various problems I have had and will...
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...The Experimental Eskimos It was in the 1950s that Canada started to look at the arctic regions and think about what they could get from that huge, icy and inhospitable region. Therefore, the government thought about the possibly cheapest way to achieve some control over this province: take three children, selected through an IQ test, and give them an education in order to create a Canadian-friendly political élite with the final objective of increasing the surface managed by the government. This is only the opening of the documentary “The experimental Eskimos”, born after the discovery of government documents that revealed how the experiment worked. One of the most curious aspects about these events is how such a radical and quick transition from a rural society to a metropolitan context can affect a man’s life. In the 1960s, Eskimos’ life was still pretty traditional. Though living in a part of Canada, they barely spoke English and the highest expectations for a grown up man were proper of a rural society: being a good hunter and own a kayak. Eskimos life was felt as incomplete, so the boys’ parents did not fight with the government project, probably thinking that it was a good opportunity for their children. Zebedee Nungak, Eric Tagoona and Peter Ittinuar, the three children, were then taken to Ottawa. The initial impact is how it can be expected from someone who lived in an underdeveloped society and observes a big city for the first time: the little Eskimos were fascinated...
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...LA TYPOGRAPHIE EXPÉRIMENTALE De la publicité commerciale aux oeuvres d’art, des estampes japonaises aux dernières technologies web, le processus de recherche et de création a toujours été au coeur des innovations les plus marquantes. L’évolution des technologies au cours des dernières décennies offre une plate-forme de création incroyable. Avec l’apparition des ordinateurs et la numérisation des caractères typographiques, designers novices comme vétérans se retrouvent avec leur propre fonderie virtuelle. Ainsi, les possibilités d’expression se sont littéralement décuplées. Chaque typographe propose alors une vision différente et subjective des lettres par son expérimentation. Nous baserons cette recherche sur l’expérimentation typographique de six influents designers post-moderne ayant marqués le monde du design par le caractère novateur de leurs oeuvres: Ed Fella, Neville Brody, Pierre Newmann, David Carson, Stefan Sagmeister et NON-FORMAT. EDWARD FELLA Après une carrière prolifique de trente ans à Détroit comme illustrateur et designer dans le domaine de la publicité, Edward Fella, 47 ans et jusque là autodidacte, entre à la Cranbrook Academy of Art en 1985. C’est là-bas qu’il commence à pousser ses expérimentations rappelant un mélange de dadaïsme, de surréalisme et une pensée futuriste à laquelle il donne sa saveur vernaculaire et plutôt chaotique. Fella exprime ses frustrations quant à la difficulté qu’il avait à faire paraître ses pratiques expérimentales dans...
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...Sta. Cruz Elementary School in Sto. Tomas, Batangas. The population is divided into two groups by randomization: 24 pupils in the control group and 24 pupils in the experimental group since the researchers used the between subjects design. The control group received the normal way of giving spelling activity, the oral dictation of words. The experimental group received also the oral dictation of words but they are also shown flashcards with jumbled letters of the words that are being spelled. The computed value of t was – 1.7 and is less than the tabular value, 2.021 with df of 46 and the α of .05. This means that the presence of flashcards with jumbled letters has no significant effect on the word formulation of Grade 3 pupils. Word Formulation 3 Methodology This experiment was conducted at Sta. Cruz Elementary School in Sta. Cruz, Sto. Tomas, Batangas. The subjects of the experiment were taken from the total population of 48 pupils of Grade 3. They were randomly divided into two groups: 24 pupils for the control group and 24 pupils for the experimental group. The experimenters used the normal way of giving spelling or the oral recitation of words to the pupils on the control group. Materials such as flashcards were used by the experimenters to show the jumbled letters for word formulation. The experimental research of the experimenters started on March 13, 2014 at Sta....
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...Article Astronomy December 2010 Vol.55 No.35: 4010–4017 doi: 10.1007/s11434-010-4197-x SPECIAL TOPICS: Experimental measurement of growth patterns on fossil corals: Secular variation in ancient Earth-Sun distances ZHANG WeiJia1,3,4*, LI ZhengBin2,3 & LEI Yang1 1 2 Department of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; 3 State Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Communication Systems & Networks, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; 4 Committee of Yuanpei Honors Program, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China Received June 3, 2010; accepted July 22, 2010 In recent years, much attention has been given to the increase in the Earth-Sun distance, with the modern rate reported as 5–15 m/cy on the basis of astronomical measurements. However, traditional methods cannot measure the ancient leaving rates, so a myriad of research attempting to provide explanations were met with unmatched magnitudes. In this paper we consider that the growth patterns on fossils could reflect the ancient Earth-Sun relationships. Through mechanical analysis of both the Earth-Sun and Earth-Moon systems, these patterns confirmed an increase in the Earth-Sun distance. With a large number of well-preserved specimens and new technology available, both the modern and ancient leaving rates could be measured with high precision, and it was found that the Earth has been leaving the Sun...
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...and look for relationships between different variables. Both correlational and experimental research designs have its advantages and disadvantages. Another decision in designing research concerns where the study should be conducted: in a field setting or in a laboratory. Correlational Research Social psychologists use correlational research to look for relationships between variables. For example, a social psychology might carry out a correlational study looking at the relationship between workplace violence and aggression. Conducting surveys, directly observing behaviors, or compiling research from earlier studies are some of the methods used to gather data for correlational research. While this type of study can help determine if two variables have a relationship, it does not allow researchers to determine if one variable causes changes in another variable. Experimental Research Experimental research is the key to uncovering causal relationships between variables. In experimental research, the experimenter randomly assigns participants to one of two groups: (1) the control group; and (2) the experimental group. The control group receives no treatment and serves as a baseline. Researchers manipulate the levels of some independent variable in the experimental group and then measure the effects. Since, researchers are able to control the independent variables, experimental research can be used to find causal relationships between variables. Field Versus...
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...Abstract The objective of this paper is to explore the fundamental circumstances to sustain the validity of prosocial behavior using experimental methods. The focus is on psychological issue of prosocial behavior, and evaluated these concepts using a descriptive method design. In doing so; this paper describes the sample populations, the experimental methods, and provide a speculation on the expectation of the outcomes of prosocial behavior in these scenarios. In addition, this paper further discusses the established sequence of necessary conditions to support the validity of prosocial behavior in reference to bystander effect. In conclusion, relating the conditions of the survey for reliability and to evaluate whether or not the methods discussed measures and are confirmed through the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and support an inter-source agreement. Experimental Method Design The bystander effect is a psychological episode in social psychology that connects with incidents when individuals refuse to assist in an emergency situation when others are nearby. In the past, the probability of help as been believed to be involving oppositely affected variables comparable to the number of bystanders, for instance, the more bystanders, the least likely anyone will help. John M. Darley was the first social psychologist to make obvious the bystander effect. In this experience, an emergency situation is thespian, and the participants are alone...
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...Experimental Procedure Materials and Reagents The following materials and reagents were used throughout the experiment: P200 and P100 Pipetman micropipettes were used in this experiment. Fisher gel loading pipet tips were used. A Genesys 10S UV-VIS Spectrophotometer was used and had the ID number 2N3R294201. Two cuvettes (1.0cm path length) were used. A black Sharpie marker was used. A Fisher vortex mixer was used and had the ID number 060711069. A Fisher Scientific Isotemp was used and had the ID number 102NO562. Coomassie Brilliant Blue dye stain (2.5 g dye, 50% methanol, and 7.0% Acetic Acid in water) made on 4/22/2015 was used. Gel de-staining solution (50% Methanol/7.0% Acetic acid) made on 10/16/2013 was used. Two magnetic...
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...One example of an experimental design flaw is not picking the right location of the study. For example, research in a laboratory has the disadvantage of external validity, or generalizability of the results to real life organizations. Alternatively, there is field research which has the disadvantage of internal validity because it loses control of extraneous variables that are not related to the study. Another example of an experimental design flaw is not using the right research method. An example of this is using surveys to ask workers about other employees or their bosses. Since these are opinions, it could be influence by personal reasons rather than job performance. Also high response rates are essential to collecting effective data....
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...RESEARCH DESIGN A. Definition Research design refers to the complete sequence of steps to be undertaken to ensure that the appropriate data will be obtained in a way which permits an objective analysis leading to valid inferences with respect to the stated problem. It is a step in problem solving consisting of a detailed plan to be followed in obtaining the needed data. It specifies what organisms, chemicals, glasswares, and equipment will be used in the study. B. Significance 1. It serves as a guide for direction during the actual experimentation. 2. It allows a gain of maximum information relevant to the problem at minimum cost. 3. It makes the statistical test of significance valid because it takes into consideration all the assumptions that went into deriving the various statistics. C. General Features The design of an experiment depends on the type of research undertaken and the nature of the conditions under which study is done. The design of an experiment is dictated by the question it is to answer. There is no common blueprint that will serve as a guide in writing a research design. Each problem requires its own unique design. A research design contains the following sections: I. Introduction A. Background of the Study B. Statement of the Problem C. Significance of the Study D. Scope and Limitation of the Study II. Review of Related Literature III. Methodology IV. Time Table V. Proposed Budget ...
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...BUSI 600 Liberty University September 20, 2013 Discussion Board Forum 5 This paper will attempt to answer varies questions from chapters nine and ten. The questions asked and answered pertain to ethical problems, experiments and their designs. After reading this paper you should know that there are some ethical issues when it comes to experimental research. You should also understand and become aware of the steps you should take to accomplish a well-planned experiment (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p.206). There is information about the types of experimental designs and how they are different. Also discussed are the three communication approaches. Question 9.4 What ethical problems do you see in conducting experiments with human subjects? The question of “what ethical problems do you see in conducting experiments with human subjects?” is truly a multi-layered opinionated question that forces a person to ask “what would be the most responsible way society could condone such acts and what could be the worst case scenario?” The first step in analyzing this question is to define ethics. Ethics is defined as “norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with others” (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, p. 32). The key issues of ethics in experimentation relate to benefits, deception, informed consent, debriefing participants, and the right to privacy (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). It is important that the researcher “discuss the study’s...
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...Chapter 11 Experiments and Test Markets Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which term below refers to a study involving the manipulation of one or more variables to determine the effect on another variable? A) ex post facto B) experiment C) monitoring study D) communication study E) descriptive study Answer: B Level: easy 2. Which variable in an experiment is manipulated by the researcher? A) dependent variable B) extraneous variable C) moderating variable D) independent variable E) mediating variable Answer: D Level: moderate 3. Which variable in an experiment is the variable expected to be affected by the manipulation? A) dependent variable B) extraneous variable C) moderating variable D) independent variable E) mediating variable Answer: A Level: easy 4. All of the following are terms used to refer to an independent variable except _____. A) predictor B) explanatory C) criterion D) all of the above refer to an independent variable E) none of the above refer to an independent variable Answer: C Level: easy Use the following to answer questions 5-9: In the study of bystanders and thieves presented in the text, participants are invited to a store where they see someone steal the purse of another customer. The accosted shopper and the thief are really acting their parts to set the stage for the experiment. Participants view the robbery alone or with another participant. The study sought to determine...
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