Hooliganism among Sport Spectators

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Hooliganism among Sport Spectators The term hooliganism is not new to anyone who has been keeping in touch with world news, especially concerning sports. The behavior of hooliganism is one that has been existent for a long time, and is very prevalent in the contemporary world. Football matches for instance have always been marred by such developments where the spectators have turned against rival spectators. In this case, the rival spectators are identified as those supporting a rival team. The violence against different team supporters have usually led to the destruction of property, injuries and in some unfortunate events, it has resulted to the loss of lives. These are issues that the world is currently facing. The entire universe has in one way or another experienced such developments especially among the sport spectators. The emergence of football as one of the most watched and supported sport has put it at the very center of hooligan activities. Many hooliganism cases reported today are from soccer matches, where fans find it hard to accept defeat. The fact that so many people today closely follow the sport has made it prominent, with an almost cult-like fan following. The football fans have grown enthusiastic of the sport in such a way that the loss of a match touches a very sensitive nerve among these fans, an aspect that results to anger. The embarrassment caused is usually almost personal among these spectators; hence the slightest trigger to violence leads to a greatly devastating repercussion. As such, hooliganism has emerged as one of the greatest menaces plaguing the contemporary world, and most specifically the soccer arena. The origin of football is not definitely known. Some ascribe it as having originated from china, where there existed a game of kicking a ball natively known as cuju. Others have ascribed as having originated from other areas of the world such as England (Lewis, 2014, p.1062). It was majorly played in English schools, and initially was considered a game of the lower social class. This perception however changed when it became more prevalent among all members of the society regardless of their class. The first tournament was held and it took place between a set of schools. With the development of rules which governed the sport, the real football is considered to have been born then. During and after the industrial revolution, more industrialized cities began forming associations. One of the most notable associations was the Scottish football association. It came to life in 1883 (Cohrs, Asbrock & Sibley, 2012, p.472). The prevalence of these associations and the manner by which the sport was embraced led to the involvement of other more organizations, especially ones which came from varied backgrounds from the industrial sphere. The church for instance got itself involved in the sport, where it helped new teams pop up and be associated with some of the then major football associations. The sport there after steadily grew and spread to other parts of the world. England however remains notable when analyzing the cradle of the sport and some of the prevalent activities associated with it. These include hooliganism, competition for championship cups and many more. Hooliganism has been in existence, especially since the 60s period. It was major in the United Kingdom during this period. Football hooliganism majorly constituted the overall acts of violence in the area. As such, hooliganism is usually associated more with football. It has grown to be a culture among football fans, where pitch rivalry is driven to the streets, an aspect that leads to the emergence of football among rival team supporters. The composition of these hooligans groups does not necessarily come from one societal setup. Women, men and children have been frequently identified as hooligans. Touts, doctors, teachers, lawyers and people from other various professions have also been established as core participants of these hooliganism activities. As such, the behavior spreads far and wide within the society. It has spread into other countries. The development of technology has furthered the menace and made it one of the world’s greatest problems (Lewis, 2014, p.1064). Today, there are fans of various rival international teams all over the world. The violence associated with hooliganism have also been spread to these fan bases. A match between two international teams for instance leads to deadly repercussions depending on which team wins and how the winners conduct themselves. Provocation of the loosing team and their fans is a prevalent development in such like circumstances. This has immensely contributed to the further growth of violence. Hooliganism has become almost a culture among football fans. It has grown in popularity. It has thus developed as a global menace, especially in the contemporary world.
Statistics, Trends and Scope of Hooliganism among Sport Spectators
Understanding the scope, statistics and trends associated with hooliganism will be key in understanding the various social psychological theories that seeks to establish the issue into context. Fan violence or the ‘English Disease’ as hooliganism became known has been identified to have plagued many countries across the globe. Among the notoriously named countries in the world included Germany, Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands and Italy (Woolsey, 2010, p.589). The scope of scientific study conducted in these regions points to various explanations with the use of varied social psychological theories. The North American region has been poorly mentioned when it comes to the statistical findings of world regions where hooliganism has grown prevalent (Ramirez-Esparza et al., 2012, p.235). The fact that soccer is not prevalent in the continent is one reason why there is such a poor rate of fan violence reported within the region. Their concentration in other sports has seen them benefit where there are peaceful matches, with slightly small crowds participating. As such, one of the main reasons why football is marred with violence is due to the following the sport commands. The concept of safety in numbers drives fans crazy, where fans feel secure and free to engage in immoral activities. The probability of taking responsibility when participating in a mob violation of rules has significantly contributed to the acts of hooliganism as is experienced among large crowds when compared to smaller crowds. With the participation of such huge crowds in soccer matches, the possibility of having a fan or a number of fans provoke members of the opposite, and most especially the rival team is prevalent (Spaaij, 2014, p.148). This leads to the development of furry among the rivals, hence the participation in violent activities as a way of avenging. The possibility of a fan provoking the member of a rivaling team in a small fan gathering is relatively reduced. The safety in number as stated earlier condenses the chances of such a possibility, where owing to fear, most people choose to celebrate their win in harmony (Cohrs, Asbrock and Sibley, 2012, p.475). The situation would be different in a situation where the fan gathering is enormous. Such an act would lead to a counter provocation act, which would then result to a miniature rivalry while still at the stadium, and grow enormous while in the streets. Losses on the pitch, especially considering the manner by which some of the soccer teams are valued by their fans is also another trend that contributes to the growth and prevalence of violence among soccer fans. The cult-like following, which most soccer teams and associations have been accorded, especially in the contemporary world has massively contributed to the growth of hooliganism. Many people all over the worlds have resigned to conformity, and as such, found themselves involved within the football arena as spectators (Hogg and Terry, 2000, p.124). They have thus grown into hardcore supporters of these teams hence the large number of spectators and football fans all over the world. This makes it difficult for the management of such huge crowds. Hooliganism thus finds a favorable room to grow into even more prevalence. The influence of the players cannot also me overlooked in analyzing the trend of hooliganism among soccer fans, a factor that has greatly contributed to it becoming a contemporary menace. The violent ways by which players conduct themselves while in the pitch may also be interpreted by the fans as the acceptable mode of behavior towards the rivaling teams and their fans (King, 2001, p.569). The growth of rivalry, which starts from the pitch, extends to the streets and other places where the supporters of rivaling teams converge. The atmosphere of enmity created by such behaviors carried out among the players spreads to the fans. Many may argue against this, where they may state that the same happens in other sports where hooliganism is not as prevalent as in soccer (Rookwood & Pearson, 2012, p.151). Basketball for instance, critics states, rarely experiences such violent reactions from fans. However, the factor of the crowd is not put into consideration in their arguments. As stated earlier, the number of fans accumulated within one region largely contributes to the engagement in immoral activities among the fans owing to the concept of safety in numbers. Football, which attracts a huge following with a cult-like following, leads to the trigger of emotions especially in the event of provocation. The end results are usually violence, a tactic of getting back at competitors and rivals embraced by many around the world. Although there currently lacks a definite reason for hooliganism among sport spectators, most especially among the soccer fans, there is a considerable amount of reasons to believe that the following and the prevalence of the sport have everything to do with it. The concentration of sport stadia during international games, and the level by which people react to sport related news in the media explains the place of sports among many people’s hearts (Cohrs, Asbrock & Sibley, 2012, p.474). The level by which they value these games goes beyond any imaginable limits. Many theories point towards this direction as shall be further looked at in this paper.
The Issue of Fan Violence and Theories to Explain this Tendency The issue of fan violence has been greatly analyzed above, with historical backgrounds and trends that lead to the development of such acts discussed. The menace as has been seen above can be explained using a myriad of theories as will be looked at below, according to categories of theories. These categories include behavior, social influence, schema and categorization and many more. There are a myriad of concepts that explains the influence of behavior on the conduct of the fanatics. Scientists have managed to link certain behavior theories with the engagement in violent and destructive activities. These theories includes the intrinsic theory, aggression theory, hooligan addiction theory, contagion theory, violence, crowd dynamics and events theory, emergent norm theory, convergence theory, value added theory, collective mind theory etc.
Intrinsic Theory According to Lewis (2014, p.1070), a major part of human behavior is dependent on instincts. According to scientist Freud, all humans possess a potential self destructive energy which requires to be released. Inattention in the release of this energy may result to destructive consequences. As such, most people find violence to be the best place to release their emotional buildup. This explains the behavior of soccer fans. The self-destructive energy, which arises from a buildup of emotions are released through violence which in turn is explained as hooliganism. Woolsey (2010, p.591) states that the scientist theorized that in a group of people, there is the tendency to grow a certain type of dependency, especially on the leader. This need is usually prevalent among a group. The fact that football spectators form such a huge crowd makes it impossible for the attainment of this need. The dependency on the group leader and the lack of satisfaction thereof, leads to the development of frustration and the growth of primitive mode of behavior (Taylor, 2011, p.1758). The ability to think for oneself is usually lost in this instance, and in the process denounces their morals too. This development may lead to the development of violence. The joining in of other group members in the activity is a high possibility. In the end, the development of the same sequence of activities and behaviors on the other side is also triggered, a factor that largely contributes to the prevalence of hooliganism among sports spectators.
The Hooligan Addiction Theory Unlike the intrinsic theory, where violence is triggered through the development of aggression, the hooligan addiction theory mainly concentrates on the addiction part and fun of engaging in such violent activities. According to this theory, the association of extreme fans with behaviors considered as violent results to their addiction of the same. They become euphoric upon their engagement in such violent activities. Hooliganism addicted fans are usually associated with the planning aspect and they garner a lot of zeal and happiness from this process. They then participate in the violence itself for maximum satisfaction. The provocation aspect is usually not necessary as their violence activities are usually planned earlier. In some sport tournaments, some spectators have been found to have carried destructive materials, which in the highest probability were intended to harm members of the rival team. This can further be used to explain the hooligan addiction theory.
Frustration – aggression Theory This theory aligns with the factors of enthusiasm and support for a given team. The spectators are usually deeply involved in the affairs of the teams they support. As such, their support becomes rooted firmly in such a manner that any loss of their teams against a rival team leads to the growth of frustration. They usually feel like this as they develop the feeling that they have failed in proving themselves (Lewis, 2014, p.1065). Their close associations with the teams they support calls for the need for respect among the participants of the particular sporting game. The buildup in frustrations usually reaches a level where they find it difficult to condense it within. Their violent activities usually results from a greatly built up aggression (Stott et al., 2008, p.118). Alike the intrinsic theory, they let out their held up emotions, and they do so through the participation in violence. The need to see the members of the rival team in pain and sadness is usually their main intent. They feel very close to their teams that any loss translates to their embarrassments hence a buildup of frustrations, which grow into aggression, and then results into violence.
The Emergent Norm (social learning) Theory From an observation perspective alone, the tendency of people in a group to act in a similar manner is usually rife. The reason behind this observation is usually because most people value the more prevalent mode of behavior as opposed to their own mode of behavior (Rookwood & Pearson, 2012, p.151). They sacrifice their mode of behavior for one that is prevalent within the groups they associate themselves with. As such, they end up modifying their judgments especially regarding the good and the bad. At the end, they hope to attain a consistent level of behavior, one that is generally accepted within the group (Lewis, 2014, p.1071). The emergence of such acceptable modes of behavior within the group therefore influences the entire group into a common mode of behavior. The behavior of fanatics, where they turn against each other can thus be explained whereby most people within a group of fanatics find violence to be generally acceptable within the group and despite their better judgment, still engage in such activities. This would also go a long way in explaining why lawyers, touts, doctors, teachers, farmers and people from other professions and social classes engage in sport hooliganism (Ramirez-Esparza et al., 2012, p.241). They find violence acceptable and appropriate owing to the modification of their judgments in order to feel closely associated within the group and it is neither owing to frustrations or emotional buildup.
Contagion Theory The contagion theory is quite the opposite of the emergent norm theory. In the later, the fans are regarded as the direct agents for determining the correct form of behavior within a group, where they loosen their better judgments to conform to the more acceptable judgment within their groups. In the contagion theory however, this is not the case. The fans are unconsciously influenced into violence, where through the external trigger of their emotions, they end up engaging in violent activities (Rookwood & Pearson, 2012, p.155). This theory works in such a mechanism that involves the arousal of one person’s emotion within the crowd, who then influences a person with the greatest say in the crowd. As a result, the influence of other members’ emotions takes course, an aspect that leads to the arousal of the entire crowd owing to a common condition among the members (Cohrs, Asbrock & Sibley 2012, p.476). The highest levels of emotions are in some cases reached, an aspect that suspends the ability to think rationally, thereby leading to the engagement of such persons in violent activities to lessen their levels of high emotions. This theory can be used to further explain the resultant factors of losing a match to the rival team. In the instance where the goals lost are too many, numerous spectators have usually resulted into crying, and the slightest provocation leads to their involvement in destructive and violent activities (Spaaij, 2014, p.149). The effects of such emotional persons to the rest of the crowd members, especially the one supporting a common team cannot be overlooked.
Convergence Theory Convergent theory is one of the theories that point towards the generation of violence through the grouping of likeminded people, and mostly people who share similar qualities (Taylor, 2011, p.1760). This is a different theory from the other theories discussed above. The aggression does not grow out of rivalry between members of different teams as was the case with all other theories looked at above. Instead, people with a common goal, aim, values and characteristics gather together to cause trouble. In most cases, these are people who aim at causing destruction or ruining a given match based on their character traits. They are neither aggressed nor frustrated. They are simply happy when engaging in violent acts (Woolsey, 2010, p.593). Usually, their main intention is to see members of rival teams engaging in brawls. This case can be associated to instances where members of rival teams who were earlier considered friendly and at peace engaging in violent activities. The triggers of such conflicts are usually members from neither of their teams. They may also be natural trouble makers who like getting into running escapades with the authorities.
The Collective Mind Theory According to a research finding towards the beginning of the 21st century, it was established that the society is made up of two forms of individuals (Stott et al., 2008, p.121). They exist and work in varied mindsets. One of these groups are the individual minds, while the other are the collective minds. The individual minds are considered as the more upright people with a great sense of care. They believe in the moral institution and work towards nurturing it. The collective mind alternatively, is made up of individuals who think as a group. Although Durkheim asserts that the collective mind dictates the social order, Le Bon detests this assertion, where he claims that the collective mind is made up of individuals who conform to other people’s thinking not based on the moral nature of their mindsets, but for the purposes of conforming. They let go of their better judgments and give way to that of the society. Rookwood & Pearson (2012, p.152) asserts that in collective mind setups, individuals are prone to loosen their judgments, therefore becoming impulsive owing to the primitivism associated with collective mind. The decline in terms of primitivism associated with individual consciousness leads to the increased tendency of getting involved in violence among individual within the collective mind spectrum. The level of anonymity associated with crowds is among the numerous mechanisms used towards the generation of violence among individuals operating in groups.
Value-added Theory The value added theory suggests that the engagement of fans into violence takes a number of processes. The set of activities usually depends on the prior one for the next to take place. In this theory, there is a prerequisite activity that gives way to the growth of a more complex stage. These stages include the structural conduciveness then the structural strain. Following the structural strain is the development and spread of a given belief, which is followed by the precipitation factor, then mobilization, thereafter, an operation to control the tensions may take place (Rookwood and Pearson, 2012, p.157). The structural conduciveness involves the background that leads to the formation of a conflict. The conflict then leads to a level of discomfort, where rivals engage in miniature squabbles which includes teasing. Tension then builds up, an aspect that leads to heightened emotions. In this case, the slightest trigger to violence may indeed lead it. An example of common triggers is unfair rulings by the referee. The mobilization thereafter takes place. In this case, there is an incitement to violence, where members of the aggrieved group gather their group members together and starts spoiling for a brawl with the fans of their rival team (Ramirez-Esparza et al., 2012, p.244). This usually leads to the violence that most sport tournaments are associated with. Ultimately, there is an operation of social control in the case the violence does not erupt. Both sides are cooled down. This value added theory explains the process that usually culminates into violent activities, especially when member of the rival teams meet in the streets (Taylor, 2011, p.1767). The level of emotions and tensions that have been built up while cheering their teams take full control of their thinking. As such, hooliganism becomes the closing session of the entire process, where destructions and violence take full effect. The research on hooliganism, where fans decide to turn violent and against their rivals has used a myriad of research spectrum. There exist numerous studies which are mainly based on small groups, where it has been established that some developments within groups take place independently from the people who participate in their establishment (Woolsey, 2010, p.593). There are theories that have been discussed above, and which majorly deals with crowds and how violence takes root to levels of destruction. The entire stages of these theories, as have been established, play a key role in the ultimate resultant factor which is hooliganism. The emergent norm theory, value added theory, and contagion theory among others focus on the development of violence through the means of crowd participation. The convergence theory alternatively, only takes course following the pulling together of individual with given commonalities and it is the only theory that relies on aggression among the crowd dynamic theories.
Schema theory Schema theory refers to the organization of thoughts and behavior in a particular pattern, an aspect that is triggered by a central meaning. In football and hooliganism, this theory can be understood as the building block behind the development of a culture of violence which accompanies matches. It explains the prevalence of violence in sporting activities, where owing to a common mode of behavior amongst spectators, the concept of violence has been included into the larger definition of supporting one’s team (King, 2001, p.571). The trigger of violence is an aspect that has been tightly set up in the brain in the case things do not go according to plans. Spectators have identified a common mode of reacting to any unsatisfying results in the pitch, which involves violence and other immoral activities that involves vandalism. Alike the value added theory, schema theory sets out a system of reaction, where one activity cannot take place before the preceding one.
Self-categorization Theory This theory involves the identification of oneself and grouping according to a set of commonality. In this theory, a person identifies people with similar values and characteristics and associates with such people (Cohrs, Asbrock & Sibley 2012 p.477). This theory can be used in the further understanding of the convergence theory. The factor by which hooligans attend a match with the intention of causing chaos describes the nature of this concept. The identification of people with a similar aim and objective enables these persons to join in a group, thereby accomplish the aim that drove them into the stadium. Self-categorization theory describes the issue associated with planned hooliganism among spectators, although in a varied way from other theories. The individual spectators walk into the stadium with a mission and finds people with a similar mission, who then combine to cause violence.
Conclusion
Although these concepts identify the causes and factors that lead to the development of violence among spectators, some of them are not empirically tested. Increased research is necessary to establish these factors as legitimate in order to commence the process of dealing with this menace. Although hooliganism is seen as a deep rooted behavior among spectators, where it has evolved into almost a sport culture, there can be ways by which to minimize it. Preventing the occurrence of violence can be done by moving fast and dealing with the possible triggers of the same. Incorporating football fans in the promotion of their safety and in the establishment of peace and harmony among members of different teams can work towards peaceful future matches. Redefinition of football matches as friendly recreational activities can also aid in lessening the cult like perception of the sport and other games.

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