...individuals participate in crime because of forces beyond individual control and relies on the scientific method to prove it s theories (Cullen & Agnew, 2006 ). Individuals should not be held solely responsible for their actions because not everyone is rational. Outside factors can play an important part in determining one‟s participation in crime. Now that we have exami ned the two most dominant schools of criminological theory we can examine how two theories, self - control and routine activity, have been applied to the study of cybercrime and cybercrime victimization. Self - Control Theory One general crime theory that has been applied to the study of cybercrime is self - control theory. Self - control theory was first proposed by Travis Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson in their 1990 publication A General Theory of Crime . Self - control theory beli eves that criminal motivation is rampant, but that people act on this motivation only when they possess low self - control (Cullen & Agnew, 2006) . This paper will discuss the basic elements of self - control theory, as well as research that has provided eviden ce to support the validity of this theory. Then this section will review empirical studies that have applied self - control theory to the stu dy of cybercrime and cyber victimization and will dis cuss the benefits of applying this theory to the study of cyberc rime....
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...Examination of Cybercrime and Cybercrime Research: Self-control and Routine Activity Theory Katherine M. Grzybowski Arizona State University 1 March 2012 Cybercrime 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................3 2. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................4 3. A REVIEW OF CYBERCRIME ...................................................................6 3.1 Cybercrime Legislation ............................................................................7 3.1.1 Federal Laws .................................................................................7 3.1.2 State Laws ......................................................................................9 3.2 Cybercrime Law Enforcement Agencies ................................................11 3.3 Classifying Cybercrime ............................................................................16 3.4 National Levels of Cybercrime ................................................................19 3.4.1 Business Cyber Victimization ......................................................20 3.4.2 Individual Cyber Victimization ...................................................22 4. A REVIEW OF THEORIES..........................................................................26 4.1 Self-control Theory ..............................................
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...one’s environment , nature or nurture. This paper shall seek to establish, where possible , the route to criminal behaviour and evaluate potential factors that could influence an individual to become delinquent . Gottfredson & Hirschi (1990) set forth a general theory of crime that identified low self-control as the main causal factor. Their theory also proposed the notion that parents play the decisive role in either nurturing or thwarting the development of self-control – dependant on the parent’s ability to monitor and supervise a child’s behaviour and respond appropriately to anti-social behaviour. They claim that parents are the sole contributors to the cause of low self-control and therefore they reject potential genetic contributions in their theory . Their theory illustrates that criminal behaviour is simply caused by one’s parental socialization and upbringing, not by inherent genes . This concept is seemingly simplistic given that various other research suggests that there is empirical evidence for inherited genes having a pivotal role in determining an individual’s behaviour. Wright & Beaver (2005) conducted a study in order to test Gottfredson & Hirschi’s theory. They wanted to test the theories’...
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...An Examination of Cybercrime and Cybercrime Research: Self-control and Routine Activity Theory Katherine M. Grzybowski Arizona State University 1 March 2012 Cybercrime 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................3 2. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................4 3. A REVIEW OF CYBERCRIME ...................................................................6 3.1 Cybercrime Legislation ............................................................................7 3.1.1 3.1.2 Federal Laws .................................................................................7 State Laws ......................................................................................9 3.2 Cybercrime Law Enforcement Agencies ................................................11 3.3 Classifying Cybercrime ............................................................................16 3.4 National Levels of Cybercrime ................................................................19 3.4.1 3.4.2 Business Cyber Victimization ......................................................20 Individual Cyber Victimization ...................................................22 4. A REVIEW OF THEORIES..........................................................................26 4.1 Self-control Theory ...................................................................
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...their lives’ the pathways. As such, a turning point is especially helpful in the study of alterations in deviant behaviors within different contexts and over the life span. Turning points offer potentially fruitful areas of investigation that may enhance an understanding of how and why offenders quit their behaviors over the long-term. Characteristics of Low Self-control or Impulsivity Self-control is an important concept under Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime (Pratt & Cullen, 2007). Individuals with low self-control are easily persuaded by situational factors. They become impulsive, risk-taking, insensitive, short-sighted, physical and nonverbal which predisposes them to criminal engagements. People with low self-control can be identified in various ways. They are unable to delay gratification due to their focus on the present. They often act impulsively with an immediate want for things. They become risk takers with little thought. People with low self-control also focus on themselves as opposed to other people which make them very insensitive. Empathy is of little import to them. As such, low self-control easily leads one into criminal behavior. Adolescent Limited and Life Course Persistent Criminals As Moffitt and Walsh (2003) observed, there are two major pathways to...
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...General Theory of Crime. There are several facts about Gary Gilmore’s life that fall under the trends described in the General Theory of Crime. One fact includes Gary having a very hard childhood where his dad would beat him and his mom. Another fact about Gary was that he had low-self control and acted impulsively. He would commit several crimes randomly and excessively. These are only two of the common symptoms Gary has that are found in all criminals according to the General Theory of Crime. Hirshi and Gottfredson explain in their theory that self-control is a major attribute that factors into the likelihood of committing criminal acts. They specifically say that low-self control is attained as a direct result of bad parenting. Bad parenting includes the inability to care for the child, the inability to recognize deviant behavior, and the inability to punish or correct deviant behavior. They also say that self-control is a stable trait is usually set by age 8. Gary’s family moved around a lot and switched homes when he was young. Also, Gary’s first 8 years of life were harsh because of an abusive father. His father drank a lot and would abuse the rest of his family. Gary would get the worst abuse out of the children. Gary’s father did not only physically abuse him, he would verbally abuse him too which most people would agree could cause psychological problems throughout life. Because of the horrendous parenting, Gary attained low self-control. Apart from the low self-control...
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...of a new type of theft. Using someone else’s identity to represent yourself over the internet or at a store has far less risk that the old ways or smash and grab. Technological expertise is something criminals are gaining more and more and at the expense of the everyday citizen. One theory that can relate to the high tech offender would be the lack of self-control theory. Gottfredson and Hirschi’s low self-control theory says children can develop their self-control levels at an early age, seven or eight. A low level of self-control can lead to a higher propensity to crime , hence stealing which is very popular amongst adolescents. (Wright, 2008). This is an I want it know result as when they see something in the store they would like to have. Criminals with low self-control often desire a need to fill a quick gratification. These are often impulsive and in the moment reactions. With the high tech offender it can get easy to learn to commit crime through means of les risk, there is a greater reward with less risk or putting themselves out there to get caught. Getting caught is a huge deterrence to criminals however with less self-control they feel a sense to do it anyway. Self-control begins at a young age with the parents teaching their children right from wrong and that you have to work hard to get the things you want. The harder you...
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...Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy and its Application in the Workplace Abstract The effectiveness of self-efficacy shows how powerful and dynamic the human mind can be. A person’s self-efficacy develops from four sources of life experience: performance accomplishments, vicariously watching others, verbal persuasion, and states of psychological arousal from which others judge that person’s coping abilities (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy can be separated into two schools of thought, motivational and cognitive theories. The first attempts to explain the drive behind a person’s belief that they will do well. The latter explains the expectancies of people and their own perception of how much they control a situation. Self-efficacy has been directly linked to performance and motivation, which is why its application in the workplace is critical. Motivational Theories Effectance motivation explains the intrinsic value people have to change their environment (Gecas, 1989). The theory of effectance motivation states that people do things in order to gain some sort of gratification (Gecas, 1989). One study that looked at why people attempt to gain control over their environment found that increasing predictability of non-human subjects as well as incentives for control over their environment drove people to portray attributes of effectance motivation theory (Waytz, 2010). The fact that people need to feel in control of their environment to feel comfortable provides a lot of insight...
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...Motivation Self-beliefs of efficacy play a key role in the self-regulation of motivation. Most human motivation iscognitively generated. People motivate themselves and guide their actions anticipatorily by the exercise offorethought. They form beliefs about what they can do. They anticipate likely outcomes of prospectiveactions. They set goals for themselves and plan courses of action designed to realize valued futures.There are three different forms of cognitive motivators around which different theories have been built.They include causal attributions, outcome expectancies, and cognized goals. The corresponding theories areattribution theory, expectancy-value theory and goal theory, respectively. Self-efficacy beliefs operate in eachof these types of cognitive motivation. Self-efficacy beliefs influence causal attributions. People who regardthemselves as highly efficacious attribute their failures to insufficient effort, those who regard themselves asinefficacious attribute their failures to low ability. Causal attributions affect motivation, performance andaffective reactions mainly through beliefs of self-efficacy.In expectancy-value theory, motivation is regulated by the expectation that a given course of behavior willproduce certain outcomes and the value of those outcomes. But people act on their beliefs about what theycan do, as well as on their beliefs about the likely outcomes of performance. The motivating influence ofoutcome expectancies is thus partly governed by self-beliefs...
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...Running head: Literary review 1 Ray Garcia Dr. Valenzuela CJ 302 11/25/2013 Abstract This year in class we have learned and applied many theories to certain crimes and court cases that have been conducted through the past. In this paper, we will look at two specific theories on how they are being used to explain or discover links between certain situations and factors. These theories allow us to see crimes in different perspective. Specifically, the theory’s in this paper we will explore rational choice theory on labeling and the linkage between arrest and gang membership, social control and differential association in relation to gangs. Each article gives us a study or situation that shows the theory’s effectiveness in explaining certain situations or actions. Gang Membership and Race as Risk Factors for Juvenile Arrest Michael Tapia article piece, “Gang membership and race as risk factor for juvenile arrest” addresses the linkage between arrests and gang membership while also exploring their race and ethnicity in correlation with their gangs. Throughout his research, Tapia shows that “gang members and racial minorities experienced undue arrest”(Tapia, 2011) which can be understood that gang members and minorities, in some cases, are easy targets for arrests because they easily fit the description or label of a law breaker or delinquent. These descriptions that law enforcement and the media portray on these gang members and minorities can eventually...
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...Psychological theory The issue of human violence is also a major topic within the academic discipline of psychology. As biosocial theorists do, psychologists focus on how individual characteristics may interact with the social environment to produce a violent event. However, rather than focus on the biological basis of crime, psychologists focus on how mental processes impact individual propensities for violence. Psychologists are often interested in the association between learning, intelligence, and personality and aggressive behaviour. In this section of the report, we briefly review some of the major psychological perspectives that have attempted to explain violent behaviour. These perspectives include the psychodynamic perspective, behavioural theory, cognitive theory and personality theory. We will also explore the possible relationship between mental illness and violence. Social learning theory Social learning theory is a theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect of the development of the self. There are many different theories that explain how people become socialized, including psychoanalytic theory, functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interaction theory. Social learning theory, like these others, looks at the individual learning process, the formation of self, and the influence of society in socializing individuals. Social control theory gained prominence during the 1960s as sociologists sought differing conceptions of crime. It...
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...believes that spending money on commissions and bonuses is necessary to motivate employees for performing a task efficiently. Together with special money paid to his employees, Mr. Salatino also concern about capabilities of them. Introduction Joe Salatino, President of Great North American, has fully brought the organization to success. The organization creates its revenue using telemarketing, which requires high performance salespeople. Consequently, when hiring telemarketing salespeople, he has to look for some specific skills that can be applied to a job. He also must understand how people perceive and attribute about others with his employees. In addition, to ensure that he hires the most successful salespeople, the value of self-efficacy is needed to establish good relationship with customers. 1.Discuss how Joe could address the importance of understanding how people form perceptions and make attributions about others with his employees. As a President of Great Northern American, Joe Salatino is responsible for building up, motivating, and manipulating the company’s sale team. The person perception process is how individual attributes characteristics or traits to other people (Slocum and Hellriegel, 2011.) To perceive his customers and employees, therefore, he has to understand how they form their perceptions and make attributions about others and themselves. He could develop a model of sale teams to connect a link with customers by screening and seeking potential...
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...elements The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over another. It also explains how they make decisions to achieve the end they value. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence , expectancy and instrumentality. The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy, performance-outcome expectancy. Three components of Expectancy theory: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence 1. Expectancy: Effort → Performance 2. Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome 3. Valence- Expectancy: Effort → Performance Expectancy is the belief that one's effort will result in attainment of desired performance goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal. Factors associated with the individual's Expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control. Self efficacy is the person’s belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. Goal difficulty happens when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult are most likely to lead to low expectancy perceptions. Control is one's perceived control over performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected...
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...ethics is a priority. This takes a higher standard than the basic ordinary social standards in society. In this discussion it will be discuss the self-interest in terms of incorporating the following theories lack of understanding, lack of trust in management, differing assessments of the need for change and Low tolerance for change. “Self-actualization consists of feeling that one's life work is helpful or meaningful to other people, and that the work fulfills personal needs for growth, achieving one's potential, and being true to oneself.” Baack, D. (2012). To identify and describe whether this actions is ethical or unethical would be to look at a situation that is “a workplace free of physical and emotional danger fulfills this need. Esteem results from being held in high regard by peers, through respect, prestige, and recognition. Company awards, favorable performance reviews, and promotions generate esteem by others.” Baack, D. (2012). The components of conflict between the relationship of motivation and job satisfaction, and work performance all have significant values which can be attributed to knowledge of learning valuable lessons in life through theories of either social responsibility or through situations in which moral ethics was a priority which took a higher standard than ordinary social standards. The self-interest of an individual realizing what priorities can relate to motivate that individuals need to progress further in society as well as attribute their...
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...Discussion Question 3 The Social Bond Theory along with the Self Control Theory both help explain why crimes and deviant behavior occur. They both do so in there own way explaining why youth get involved in criminal behavior. The Social Bond Theory is also known as the social control theory; it is the belief that forming personal relationships is the most important part of human development. These personal relationships that are formed keep the youth from committing crimes or other deviant behavior. These personal relationships can be with family, school, church, government, and within the community. The Self Control Theory explains why the majority of people choose not to participate or become involved in criminal behavior. Throughout the theory it explains how people with a high level of self-control are going to be considerably less likely to participate in criminal behavior and how if you have a low level of self control you are more likely to become involved in criminal behavior. With these two theories they talk about acts of delinquency and what might affect them but the two theories them selves contradict themselves because if you are not in a certain group you may believe that you have a sense of self control and believe that you don’t need others in your life. Even with the belief that you have self-control you may still act out because you don’t have a social bond with anyone or any group. I agree with the Social bond theory more because In my personal life...
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