...Witnesses rely on their memories to testify as to what they believe is a true account of the event. However, memories have been found to be fallible with no guarantee of corresponding with objective reality (Johnson, 2001). Research has found that false memories (FM), where a person recalls an event that did not occur and mistakes it to be a true representation of that event (Gleaves & Smith, 2004; Johnson, 2001) exists within the realm of eyewitness testimony (ET) (Loftus, Miller & Burns, 1978). This raises the issue of how well does ET reflect reality. Some theories that explain FM include the source monitoring failure theory (Johnson, Hastroudi & Lindsay, 1993), activation monitoring theory (Roediger, Balota &Watson, 2001) and fuzzy trace theory (Brianerd & Reyna, 1998; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). Due to word count limitations, this paper will explore the concept of FM using fuzzy trace theory, source monitoring errors and the misinformation effect to explain how FM occurs in the context of ET and why ET can never the representation of the complete truth. The FTT proposes that there are two parallel memory traces, the verbatim trace and the gist trace (Brianerd & Reyna, 1998; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). The verbatim trace stores information item-by-item and is a verdicial representation of an event. The gist trace stores a generalised meaning based representation of an event. The FTT proposes that verbatim trace decays quickly whereas the gist trace lingers in memory longer resulting...
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...The Effects of Emotion, Imagery and Negative Feelings on Memory Retrieval My Memory Here I was, at the 2013 U.S. Synchronized Figure Skating Championships, standing in the well-known “kiss and cry” area with my team. We just skated our second program of the competition, the long program, and it felt absolutely incredible. I remember completing each element and taking a deep breath of relief each time knowing we made it through another section of our program without a fall. Our team’s goal this season was a pewter medal, 4th place, and we were moments away from achieving it. The short program, which we skated the night before, was also incredible and it gave us close to a four point lead ahead of the team behind us. All we needed to do was get our scores and celebrate. I remember the image of the stands where our organization’s younger team and our parents stood, cheering and going crazy and waiting for our scores as well. Brooke and Alexis had those silly Shamu whale costumes on in honor of our music to a song from one of the SeaWorld shows. They started doing that silly Shamu hand signal and the rest of our cheering section did it too. I held the hands of two of my teammates, one of them my sister, tighter than I’ve held anything in my life. We stood there, anxious, staring at the screen hanging above the crowd, waiting and waiting for the announcer to come on and our scores to appear. They showed recaps of some of our best moves we performed just a few minutes ago and...
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...“Memory and the Mind-Body Connection” Please respond to the following: * Describe an example of an episodic memory, perceptual-motor memory, and semantic memory that you have personally experienced. Explain which of these memories you feel is most affected by one or more of the senses. http://www.memorydr.com/memory.htm Episodic Memory- Episodic memory is a category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences. Your first day of school, your first kiss, attending a friend's birthday party and your brother's graduation are all examples of episodic memories. In addition to your overall recall of the event itself, it also involves your memory of the location and time that the event occurred. Closely related to this is what researchers refer to as autobiographical memory, or your memories of your own personal life history. As you can imagine, episodic and autobiographical memories play an important role in your self identity. Episodic memory is the type of long-term, declarative memory in which we store memories of personal experiences that are tied to particular times and places. For example, if you are having a conversation with a friend and you tell your friend, "last night I went to a 9:00 movie..." you are recalling information stored in episodic memory. This type of memory is often what comprises eye-witness testimony and is especially susceptible to subsequent events like questioning, reading the newspaper...
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...Abstract The movie “50 First Dates” is a comedy in which Drew Barrymore (Lucy) was in an automobile accident to where she lost her short term memory. Adam Sandler (Henry) falls in love in with Lucy but finds out the hard way that he has to start over every day to become her love interest. Lucy’s father and brother basically tries to keep her from knowing her condition by continuously covering up the fact that she has memory loss. Her father and brother reenact the same day over and over. They are very protective of her and will go through anything to keep her away from Henry until they feel like he could actually help her. After a police writes her a ticket at the café it is then she realized that the date was different from what she had expected and that’s when the game of charades was to come to an end...
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...the separation of declarative and non-declarative memory Long term memory is a place where we store all of the memories that for long period of time. Once the memory has been stored in the long term memory, it can last up from a few minutes to the rest of your life. The amount of how much a person can save in the long-term memory is infinite. There are two different kinds of memories, one of them is called declarative memory. Declarative memory is the ability to for example remember what you ate for dinner yesterday, or recall a typical event; in other words, it is a memory of general knowledge, data, factual information and events. Declarative memory (also known as implicit memory) has two types: sematic and episodic...
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...Attentional Strategies Inhibition From infancy the ability to inhibit thoughts enhances. "By clearing unnecessary stimuli, inhibition increases available space in working memory." (Berk, 2013, p. 288). - Has 4 phases: 1. 2. 3. 4. - production deficiency control deficiency utilization deficiency effective strategy use - Children with attention, behaviour and learning problems suffer with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - - - “Gains in sustained attention depend on rapid growth of the prefrontal cortex, the capacity to generate increasingly complex play goals, and adult scaffolding of attention"(Berk, 2013, p. 316). 2 Vital Components - - ATTENTION - - - Rehearsal - information is constantly repeated until it becomes part of the working memory. Organization - way in which we process information and arrange them accordingly. - - - Knowledge & Sematic Memory Is declarative and involves storing information about the world and general knowledge in the long term memory. Memory strategies and extensive knowledge goes hand in hand. develops early Metacognitive knowledge therefore becomes more integrated and complex. Metacognitive Knowledge As children grow they become more conscious of their cognitive capacities and how to use particular strategies in given tasks. Culture, Schooling, & Memory Strategies - - - 4. - Thinking beyond and involves active control over the cognitive processes. - “Expands greatly as children construct a naive theory of mind...
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...Before reading and watching the videos about memory, I would have confidently stated that most of my memories were quite accurate, maybe a nine on a scale of one to ten. I now understand that although I have some vivid memories of certain events in my life, they may not be reliable recollections of the actual experiences. An explanation for this is that memories are not perfect reproductions of events because our brains are not recording devices capturing information with precise accuracy. Instead, memories are reconstructive, where we put the pieces of information together and fill in the blanks of our perceptions in order to make sense of the world. In other words we only encode some of the details of an experience and may rely upon schemas to interpret the information stored so that we can comprehend the particular situation. Although helpful, schemas potentially oversimplify information that may lead to errors in memory when retrieved. Some of these retrieved recollections of past experiences may be falsely reconstructed memories. A real-life consequence as a result of falsely reconstructed memories could be the potential for an individual to confuse their imagination with reality. For instance, the person may experience source monitoring confusion, where they feel they are experiencing an episodic memory such as having had an argument with a friend, but not being too sure if the argument actually occurred or whether it was just a dream. The individual may not have...
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...1 Sensory Perception 2 Sensory Perceptions Sensory data is an exploration of collected abilities formed through the senses of observation throughout a person’s life span. The ability to analyze and categorize images, sounds, tastes and touch sparks the likes and dislikes of gathered information. In other words, accuracy and inaccuracy takes form in what a person perceive about the collected data in that moment. Even though, perceptions of information can change at any given time, there is the ability to memorize certain behaviors and information. Furthermore, one simple reason is because as a person evolves, senses are mature enough to form decision based on learned, environmental data Accuracy of sensory information is a perception of a person’s belief pattern. For example, how a person view his or her religion as being the accurate path to the heavens or God. As mentioned before, often than not what a person believes to be accurate is their reality to learned information. However, there are no advances for achieving the right conclusion on any situation but there are derived ambitions to reach desired results. Should a person only perceive their conclusion of information to known accuracy? Most likely not because there are alternatives and differences of gathered data to reach a conclusion. Three reasons for believing in the accuracy or inaccuracy of sensory information are not limited to 1.) Environmental cues, meaning the cultural views and environment that we have...
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...Whats memory? Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.(APA) Memory has been around for as long as the Earth started maybe even longer. Back in the day we didn't have maps or clocks. They used the sun to tell what time it was, they also used the sun to remember where North, East, South, and West is. Back then they had to remember where they were by land marks. Encoding is the stage in remembering something, storage is saved in memory, and retrieval is the information stored is located and brought to awareness. There are 3 approaches to memory; sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is the initial momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant. (APA) My example for sensory memory is when I watch the TV show, House. When they use a really big medical term it goes away right away and I forget what they said. Short-term memory is memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds. An example for short-term memory for me is when I think of something to write for a paper, then when I get to write it down I forget what I was going to write. Long-term memory stores information on a relatively permanent basis although it may be difficult to retrieve. (APA) For my long-term memory example, when I was in 8th grade I had to take a world map test. When it came to remembering where Norway, Sweden, and Finland it wasn't easy because they’re roughly the same size and right next to each other. The way my class and...
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...word would be memory loss. Alzheimer’s is incurable, unstoppable, inevitable, degenerative, and a terminal disease. It is most common in people over the age of sixty-five, but there are rare occasions where it can occur in younger ages. The effect of this disease is still unknown today. Alzheimer’s bears a great burden on not only the family, but the caregivers who deal with battled every day. This disease can cause someone not to remember a friend of over ten years, or giving birth to their child. Not only is there an emotional strain on people providing care to an Alzheimer’s...
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...Table of Contents Index Page number 1. Vygotski’s Sociocultural Theory 2 1.1 Course of Development 1.2 Course of Development Characterised by 1.3 Factors Affecting Development 2. Information-Processing Theory 3 2.1 Course of Development 2.2 Course of Development Characterised by 2.3 Factors Affecting Development 3. Memory Strategies 4 3.1 Attention 3.3.1 Selective attention 3.3.2 Sustained attention 3.3.3 Adaptive attention 4. Strategies for storing memory 4.1 Rehearsal, Organisation, Elaboration 4.2 Elaboration 5. Types of memory 6 5.1 Autobiography memory 5.2 Episodic memory 5.3 Semantic memory 5.4 Eyewitness memory 6. Metacognitive memory 7 6.1 Knowledge of Cognitive Capabilities 6.2 Knowledge of Strategies 7. Cognitive Self-Regulation 8 Bibliography 9 The Course of Development in Children 1) Vygotsky noted that learning takes place on a continuous basis as they learn from the more knowledgable adults of a culture within a society. Adults play a vital role in a childs development. 2) Children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that in return, constitutes the culture. 3) Vygotsky’s theory that children undergo certain stagewise changes such as language and then be able to engage in meaning dialogue with people. Language is the cornerstone of communication. VYGOTSKI’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY 1) 2) The Course of Development are Characterised by: Vygotsky’s theory stated...
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...Discuss the multi-store model of memory (12 Marks) The multi-store model of memory was suggested by Atkinson and Shiffrin, in order to explain how memory works. Memory is a system which is vital to our survival. For psychologists, memory covers processes called; encoding, storage and retrieval. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggested that memory is made up of a series of stores. The stores differ in their encoding, storage and retrieval characteristics. Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory contained three key parts to the memory which were the sensory information system, the short-term memory and the long-term memory. The sensory information system (SIS) was believed to be the storage for memory held as a sensation, e.g. a visual image. Sperling (1960) believed in the SIS and to demonstrate its existence he conducted an experiment. He showed participants three rows of four mixed numbers and consonants for a very brief time, then played them a tone (high, medium or low) to prompt them to recall the top, middle or bottom line. Participants could do this easily if they recalled immediately but the image faded rapidly, lasting for no longer than one-quarter of a second. In this way, Sperling was also able to show that the SIS holds 5-9 items. It also showed that the information was quickly lost as the sensory image fades. The next stage of Atkinson’s...
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...Introduction Consumers’ memory can be influenced by product placement in advertisement, and the placement are able to change consumers’ attitudes toward the products even toward the brands. It is important to understand the consumer’s memory that can use in how to improve the placement. This literature review is to discuss the processes of information transfers to memory, what type of memory can be developed, how consumers use these memory, the relationship between those memory and product placement. This literature review will focus on the study area of consumer behavior, consumer research, marketing and advertising research. In this research, the memory processes will be discussed, including encoding, and retrieval. Then, the factors of influence retrieval will be outlined. At the same time, the applications of product placement will be examined throughout. Memory have ability to encode, store and retrieval information. Encoding can categorize the information which is perceived from advertisements or experiences and converted it into a construct that can be stored in the brain. Retrieval is calling back the stored information with some cues. Encoding Friestad and Thorson (1993) who base on several theories to propose that there are two types of encoding. The first one is called experimental processing. People do not have any particular goals or task when they are watching advertising. Their cognitive resources are distributed...
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...MEMORY ACCURACY: THEORETICAL MODELS AND EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION Human memory has been on many occasions compared to the operations of a computer on the basis of their multifunctional systems. Memory is critical and plays a central role in our everyday information processes. Several models of information processes have in-time being proposed. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1968) is the most popular is and widely used by many memory researchers. The model indicates the transfer of information from the environment into the sensory memory which is very brief that some information is forgotten before it reaches the second storage. Short-term memory is the second temporary store which is also fragile. The short-term memory is very similar to working memory responsible for higher cognitive functioning which is also temporary. Information is then finally encoded onto the long-term memory where it is assumed to be a permanent storage for longer periods. Baddeley (2000) proposed the episodic buffer as the new forth component of the working memory model. This model was initially proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) with three components, the central executive assisted by the phonological loop and the visuo-sketchpad assumed to be temporary storage faculties. The episodic buffer is assumed to play a very central role of binding features into objects and it is assumed to be a temporary limited store which links all systems together for the purposes of multi-dimensional coding (Baddeley...
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...AGE ON SHORT TERM MEMORY ABSTRACT: Age associated declines in cognitive processes are important to the understanding of the human mind. This study investigates the relationship between ageing and short term memory in particular, by first exploring current cognitive and neuroscientific research involving concepts such as short term/working memory, long term memory and ageing, and secondly, by means of a short term memory experiment involving verbal and numerical stimuli, that was administered to two age groups- 20 to 40 year old adults and 50 to 70 year olds. The results of the experiment were then analysed using the ANOVA statistical software programme. The results did not conclusively show age related decline in short term memory performance in all segments of the test. Memory decline with increased age was apparent in the free recall word stimuli, and in the analyses of the number of incorrectly remembered words. The serial recall digit sequence did not show any statistically significant effects. The final section of this study addresses the possible explanations for the results, as well as the limitations of the study. Contents 1.Introduction 5 2.What is memory? 5 2.1 short term memory 5 2.2 working memory 7 2.3 the relationship between ageing and memory 8 2.4 long term memory ...
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