Taylor P
Ancient Architecture

Functions of Ancient Monuments

Ancient monuments have been discovered to be a prominent feature of many different ancient civilizations throughout history. The most elaborate and well known ancient buildings are the pyramids and the ziggurats of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Mesoamerica. The construction of these massive monuments began sometime during the fourth millennium BC and to this day many can still be seen. Although believed by most to serve a particular religious function, historians are still trying to discover the exact purpose of these breathtaking feats of architecture. However, through the vast studies of archaeology, enough information has been acquired to make some valid theories.
The first civilization to construct a massive architectural project was the Egyptians with their construction of the pyramids. It is believed that the Egyptian civilization began around 5500 BC and then began to flourish as a result of new innovations in agriculture and the abundance of natural resources around the Nile. Over time, Egyptians made great achievements in mathematics, writing, astronomy, medicine, engineering, and architecture. This played a huge part in the progression of Egypt into a powerful and influential civilization. In addition to these achievements, the significance of religion was another extremely important factor that allowed the Egyptian civilization to thrive. Egyptians practiced polytheism. In their religion, not only were there multiple gods, but their gods were sometimes in human form, animal form, and even a combination of the two. Egyptians also believed that their king, or Pharaoh, was sent from the gods to protect and rule them and that “he was the indispensable link between his people and the gods.” The strong belief of the afterlife in the Egyptian religion led to the mummification process of royalty and their placement in special tombs with all their possessions and sometimes even their loved ones. The Pharaoh being the closest things they had to the gods, eventually led to the evolution of the royal tomb from a small rectangular box to enormous pyramids. One of the first pyramids built was the Pyramid of Djoser, which is also known as the step pyramid and was built in the Third Dynasty around 2700 BC. This step pyramid is believed to have evolved from the more rudimentary mastaba rectangular tombs. Eventually, the Egyptian’s technology and knowledge would advance even further and lead them to design and build the Great Pyramids of Menkaure, Khafre, Khufu, the Great Spinx at Giza as well as many other pyramids.
Over the years, historians have been in fierce debate over the explanation as to why these structures have adopted the pyramidal design and what the true utility of the edifices were. Some of the circulating theories suggest a possible stairway to the heavens, prophecies from the gods, protection of ancient relics, proof of Egyptian intelligence, and even alien invasion. The most widely accepted of these theories is based on the religious notion that the design of the pyramid would allow the Pharaoh’s soul to ascend into the heavens. Although this idea does correspond to many of the Egyptian beliefs and practices at the time, there is no actual proof of this theory. Dr. Robin Derricourt, stresses the importance of ignoring statements about pyramids that do not have supporting evidence especially when any idea can be made popular by simply posting something to the Internet. In his journal, he distinguishes over thirty claims of pyramidologies of Egypt and states that “the arguments resemble those between faith and reason, religion and science: people looking for particular kinds of approaches and explanations…” The only factual evidence that we can determine from the ancient artifacts found in pyramids and monuments is the deity role of the Pharaoh in Egypt. However, the reason for the pyramids unique design and true purpose it was designed for may never be known.
Another civilization that was making similar progressions during the same time period was Mesopotamia. Within Mesopotamia lived the Sumerians and the Semites, who spoke different languages, but shared similar religions. Like the Egyptians, they also pioneered many advancements in engineering, architecture, math, and writing. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers surrounding Mesopotamia provided rich soil that they utilized in the production of sun dried mud bricks. These bricks were the essential ‘stepping stones’ to the creation of the first ziggurat, which was completed around 3500 BC. Mesopotamia’s first noteworthy architecture was the Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu, which was built for the moon-god Nanna around 2125 BC.
The Sumerians and Semites in Mesopotamia believed their gods were anthropomorphic and “embodied the forces of nature.” Instead of the conception that the king was a god himself, like in Egypt, the king was more like a protector who served the gods. “The public, state-organized religion is most visible in the archaeological record. Cities built temples and showed devotion to the divinities who protected the community. The temple precinct, encircled by a high wall, contained the shrine of the chief deity; open-air plazas; chapels for lesser gods; housing, dining facilities, and offices for priests and other temple staff; and craft shops, storerooms, and service buildings. The most visible part of the temple compound was the ziggurat, a multistory, mud-brick, pyramid-shaped tower approached by ramps and stairs.” Although ziggurats are believed to serve a religious purpose, often as a ceremonial platform that led them closer to the gods, the actual function of them is unknown. Dominique Beyer addresses the question of the original function stating, “the stepped tower must surely have been invested with many meanings, and with its temple must have represented a mythical vision of the universe… The names given to different ziggurats, such as "house of the mountain of the universe", "house of the mountain that reaches to the sky", provide valuable clues.” Beyer then also states that they could have possibly been made for marriage ceremonies or a place only for the mythological gods to meet. It seems as if Beyer is only providing her journal with her theories and only includes references that fit what she is trying to prove. Although the stepped tower ‘suggests’ and the temple ‘must have represented’ mythical visions, these aren’t evidence-based facts. She also then quotes a Babylonian ruler who spoke of his duty to build ziggurats the highest that he can in order to praise the gods. Although this text is written in stone and is therefore true, the ruler spoke these words hundreds of years after the first ziggurat was built. It is highly plausible that the exact function of these buildings could have changed over time. When nothing is written down and documented there is no proof and the passing down of religion and other stories leaves room for major differences.
On the other side of the world in the Americas, similar civilizations were also developing. The first known civilization to begin with agriculture in the Americas began approximately around 3500 BC. Numerous civilizations, such as the Olmecs, Zapotecs, Teotihuacans, and Mayas, began progressing in agriculture and advancing in math, writing, and architecture, which eventually lead to construction of religious pyramid and ziggurat-like structures. “Monumental architecture in the Peruvian highlands began simultaneously with the development of the third- and fourth-millennium coastal sites. Two of the earliest were La Galgada (2821 BCE) and Huaricoto (2796 BCE).” The Olmecs are believed to be the first to work with stone, which laid the foundation for the following civilizations. The Mayas then began to build with stones and mortar and, over time, perfected the architecture of temples, similar to ziggurats, and pyramids, closely related to the Egyptian and Mesopotamian versions. Like the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, the different civilizations within Mesoamerica worshipped multiple gods and rituals were a major part of daily life. The cultures of Mesoamerica, especially the Aztecs, believed in offering sacrifices to their gods. Above the other gods, their chief god “Huitzilopochtli required a diet of human hearts to sustain him in his daily struggle to bring the Sun’s warmth to the world.” It is believed that these temples and pyramids were made for worshiping their gods and for sacrifices. According to Schuertz-Miller, we can obtain “glimpses into religious belief and rituals involving human sacrifice…” by looking at the archeology of ancient Mesoamerica. However, it still doesn’t complete the whole picture. When examining the past, it’s not always possible to have a factually supported answer to every question. Research of these societies, and history itself, no doubt points towards a connection in the structure and function of these monuments belonging to three different civilizations. With the vast amount of outstanding theories, it’s unfortunate that that the certainty of these theories has been lost in time.

Bibliography

Beyer, Dominique. "The proud tower." UNESCO Courier Nov. 1990: 18+. Business Insights: Essentials. Web. 18 Dec. 2014.

Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 5th Ed., Student ed. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011.

Derricourt, Robin. “Pyramidologies of Egypt: a Typological Review.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 22, (2012). pp 353-363.

Schuetz-Miller, Mardith K. "Spider grandmother and other avatars of the moon goddess in new world sacred architecture." Journal of the Southwest 54.2 (2012): 305+. Literature Resource Center. Web. 18 Dec. 2014.

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[ 1 ]. Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 5th Ed., Student ed. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. Pp 40.
[ 2 ]. Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 5th Ed., Student ed. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. pp 40.
[ 3 ]. Derricourt, Robin. “Pyramidologies of Egypt: a Typological Review.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 22, 2012. pp 355-358
[ 4 ]. Honorary Associate Professor MA, PhD (Cambridge), FSA School of Humanities and Languages. Specialist in: History of archaeology; archaeology and historiography of Middle East and of Africa; settlement history and archaeology
[ 5 ]. Derricourt, Robin. “Pyramidologies of Egypt: a Typological Review.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 22, 2012. pp 361.
[ 6 ]. Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 5th Ed., Student ed. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. pp 30.
[ 7 ]. Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 5th Ed., Student ed. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. pp 30.
[ 8 ]. Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 5th Ed., Student ed. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. pp 35.
[ 9 ]. Beyer, Dominique. "The proud tower." UNESCO Courier Nov. 1990: 18+. Business Insights: Essentials. Web. 18 Dec. 2014.
[ 10 ]. Schuetz-Miller, Mardith K. "Spider grandmother and other avatars of the moon goddess in new world sacred architecture." Journal of the Southwest 54.2 (2012): 305+. Literature Resource Center. Web. 18 Dec. 2014.
[ 11 ]. Bulliet, Richard W. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 5th Ed., Student ed. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. Pp 317.