Lecture 1
Yellow stone hot spot
Great Valley

Questions to consider throughout the course:
Boundary layer of clay
Will California fall into the sea?
What regulates climate? etc. (see lecture notes)

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Observe
Generalize and/ make a hypothesis
Test the hypothesis
Revise hypothesis if necessary
- hypothesis has to be falsify able, com

Lecture 2
Electromagnetic between positive charges of the nucleus and negative charges of the electrons

FUNDAMENTAL FORCES REVIEW
Gravity - depends on mass and distance
Electromagnetic - depends on charge, distance
Strong Force - between hadrons
Weak Force - between hadrons and some leptons

Protons and neutrons (hardrons) are made out of smaller particles called quarks
Leptons: includes electrons (mass & charge), neutrinos (mass, no charge) and their antiparticles

Field particles: transmit fundamental forces

Conservation Laws - Quantities conserved
Energy-Mass
Momentum (oriented)
*Angular momentum (oriented)
Charge
Spin (oriented)
# of Hadrons (number conserved)
# of Leptons (number conserved)
FORMS OF ENERGY
Kinetic
Potential
Heat
Chemical
Mass
Electromagnetic radiation
Changes in volume
When a thing is dropped and stopped by an object, electromagnetic force is overcoming the gravity force overlap of electron clouds of two objects

First law of Thermodynamics
Energy may be converted from one form to another, but the total must be conceived in any interactions. (Energy is conserved)

THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
When get to very small dimensions, e.g. size of atom, very small amounts of momentum, we can never seem to know anything that we wanna know about it. There're pairs of quantity

NB: You can violate the first law of thermodynamics for a very very short time, which has to be smaller than the Planck's ConstantREVIEW PLANCK'S CONSTANT

*# of protons determines # of electrons and therefore chemical identity

Carbon 14 - radioactive dating

Valence - number of electrons an atom would give up or take on to achieve the configuration of a noble gas

The closer you are to the nucleus, the lower the energy (potential energy increases with distance, e.g. further away, higher energy level)

First shell is K shell
Second shell is L shell (has two sub-levels) - 2 + 6 = 8 electrons
Third shell is M shell - 2 + 8 + 8 = 18 electrons

e.g. Lithium ion is a lot smaller than a lithium atom

Molecules vs Compounds molecule = group of atoms bound together
Example: N2 CO2 H2O

Ion = atom or molecule with net charge
Examples: Na+1 CO3--2

Compound = combination of atoms
Examples: N2 H2O CaCO3

What is the difference between a compound and a molecule?
A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join together chemically. A compound is a molecule that contains at least two different elements. All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds.
Molecular hydrogen (H2), molecular oxygen (O2) and molecular nitrogen (N2) are not compounds because each is composed of a single element. Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are compounds because each is made from more than one element. The smallest bit of each of these substances would be referred to as a molecule. For example, a single molecule of molecular hydrogen is made from two atoms of hydrogen while a single molecule of water is made from two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
Metabolism sugar
Precipitation of limestone - Ca2- + CO3+

Ionic -
Covalent - adjacent atoms share electrons

Atoms can emit light:
H emission lines (when excited)
H absorption lines vs Fe reference lines?
Lecture 4
Photons are packets of energy that oscillate electric and magnetic fields

There is a certain frequency associated with light

All light travel at the same speed

Each photon of blue light has more energy than each photon of red light
SeFerquency or Wavelenght to tell up down don photons orientation changes when it gets into a refracted piece of water

Refraction with Dispersion:
(bending depends on wavelength)

All objects emit electromagnetic radtion, with a spectrum that depends on absolute temperature.

Cold tot -> increases in wavelength

Earth Radiation Balance
The sunlight the earth receives, 35% reflected, 65% absorbed, gets reradiated as 'Earthlight' (IR)
Earth temp changes until Input = Output THROUGH ITS OWN BLACKBODY RADIATION

Brightness can be measured. We can figure out the other if we know one of the two of luminosity or distance.

If something is moving away from you, you get a red shift (because red has longer wavelength), if it is moving towards you, you get a blue shift (blue has shorter wavelength)

*Doppler shift can be used to indicate velocity
Consequently, larger shift in wavelength = larger velocity

Oort cloud is where there are lots of objects lots of ice. Orbits the sun.
Red Giant - Cool but very large surface, hence may put or give off loads of total energy

STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE
Solar Syste,
Spiral Galaxy (Milky Way)
Local Cluster (a few galaxies bound together gravity)
Universe
What can we learnt from light?
Spatial arrangement of objects
Disstances to objects - using parallax or brightness of "standard candles" (if too far)
Surface temp - from color
Brightness
Luminosity
Mass
Composition - using spectroscopy
Velocity (Doppler Shift)

Lecture 5: * Population I stars have been built from remains of old stars * Planets closer to the suns (inner plants) are more dense, consequently made of elements that are of a higher atomic number * Venus is big and strong enough to hold volatile materials and elements - no water and very hot though - what are the clouds then? * Earth - temperature between freezing and boiling point to live * Moon - evidence of collision just like mercury * Plane of the ecliptic - the plane of orbit of the Earth surrounding the sun - all planets are on a similar plane * All planets have a probane * Angular momentum of the spins and the planets * Ages of the Earth, moon and meteorites are all similar, formed at the same time from a single event * When dust cloud collapses and its hot enough it will initiate fusion * inner solar nebula is hot, outside is cool, hot near center, tapering off to cool * Allende Chondrite - formed with some parts super cold and some super hot * - extinct radioactivity * Importance of Radioactivity * - Geochronology (dating techniques) * - Thermal energy released by decay * - Medical purposes * Radioactivity = probability x no. of atoms

Element: Defined by # of protons
Isotopes: Atoms with defined # of p and n.

Evidence for water on Mars
Landforms formed by flowing water
Sublimation

Lecture 6:
- To start with, the fraction of the atoms to start with is 1.
'Extinct' Radioactivity
- In the Allende chondrite, minerals that are rich A1 contain 'excess' 26Mg

Conclusion: These minerals formed when 26Al was present, no more than a few million years after a supernova

Geochronology of early solar system
- Rb

Age of the universe is determined using radioactive dating principles

Two explanations of the Universe structure:
Steady State
Big Bang
Clues to Origin
1. Isotropy (uniformity in all directions)
2. Hubble Plot
3. Microwave Background Radiation
4. H/He ratio (nearly uniform in all stars)
5. Galaxies exist
6. Density close to critical
Hubble Plot:
Distance = (velocity)(time) if acceleration = 0
Age = (distance)*(velocity) = 1/H = 12+/-3 by

Lesson 7 Tuesday, September 24, 2013
Origin of the Universe
Assumption: Physical Laws on Earth apply elsewhere
Clues to Origin: 1. Isotropy 2. Hubble Plot 3. Microwave Background Radiation 4. H/He ratio (nearly uniform in all stars) 5. Galaxies exist 6. Density close to critical

Hubble Plot
Distance= (velocity/time) if acceleration is 0

Age of the Universe:

Brief History of Universe 1. Bubble in fabric of space-time (gravity begins) about 13.8 by ago. Photons and mass are positive energy, Energy inherent in gravitational field formation is negative energy. SUM is zero. 2. Inflation: (rapid stretching, *10^26 in <<< 1 s) produces smoothness and density close to critical

Sample Questions:
3 Electromagnetic radiations can behave like a wave, travel at the speed of the light, and be emitted b objects colder than 50 K

Lesson 8
Minerals: a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that has a regular internal structure and a well-defined chemical composition.

Rocks are aggregates of minerals (not necessarily in constant proportions)
Provide a tool for deciphering history
Classify based on mode of origin, types of
Properties reflecting internal structure (These can be used for identification) * Crystal growth form * Cleavage

Properties reflecting composition * Density * Color (Fe makes them colored or dark) * Luster (appearance of reflected light) * React with acid: CaCO3 + 2HCl= Ca + 2Cl +H20 +CO2 * Magnetic (Magnetite=Fe3O4) * Taste (Halite)

Rock Families’ * Igneous= crystallize from melt * Sedimentary=lithify sediments * Metamorphic= recrystallize due to higher T and /or P (without melting)

Process transforming on rock type to another type
Tectonic
* Uplift= bring to Earth surface * Burial=increase pressure and Temp
Weathering
* Physical =fragmentation * Chemical= reactions with water

Lesson 9
Tips for Rock ID: Texture and Comp.
Look for Layers: * Bedding in sedimentary * Foliation in metamorphic
Look for minerals * * SILICATES? QUARTZ?
Look at grain sizes and shapes * Crystals? ---- Could be plutonic igneous or metamorphic * No crystals ----Could b extrusive igneous or sedimentary * Poor sorting? ----Maybe conglomerate

React with acid? Limestone or marble

Magma is molten rock. Lava is magma at the surface
Melting T depends on Composition, Pressure, Fluids

Sedimentary Rocks are Lithified Sediments
Sources of sediments * Detrital= weathering fragments * Sand=coarse grains, silt=finer, clay=very fine * Chemical=precipitate from water * Examples: Na +Cl = NaCl (halite) * Ca + SO4+ 2H2O= CaSO4.2H2O (gypsum)

Common Sedimentary Rocks
Detrital (weathered fragments)
Conglomerate (mixed grain size)

Lesson 10
Use rocks for geologic histories
Need info: WHEN, WHERE, AND WHAT

Rocks: Igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary
Where: Depth, Temp, High energy or low – environment of Development
When: Radioactive dating—absolute age
Relative age(time)- superposition (younger rocks are on top) * Cross-cutting relations(older events cut by younger)
Principles of Stratigraphy
Fancies is any characteristic that can be mapped (grain size, fossil type, degree of metamorphosis)
Formation is a unit that can be mapped

Sedimentary structure=clue to environment of deposition
Grain size= high energy or low energy environment
Graded bedding (grain size decreases upward)= turbidity currents
Ripple marks left by currents in turbulent flow
Cross-bedding in sand= currents or wind flow

More sedimentary structures
Mud-cracks=wet/dry cycles
Marker bed: volcanic ash, salt beds, etc.
Unconformity= “missing time”= erosion or non-deposition
Look for eroional surface (irregular)
Change in dip=angular unconformity

Lesson 11
What are the Eons of the Geological Time Scale?

Geologic Structures
Tectonics at work: Fold and Faults
Normal fault: extension
Reverse fault: compression
Foot wall is older than hanging wall (for normal)
Clues for recognizing faults: 1. Abrupt changes in topography by vertical movement 2. Preferential erosion of fault zones (linear valleys) 3. Offset rock units, streams, or other linear features 4. Aquifers truncated, so groundwater surfaces 5. Abrupt changes in rock types, recognized by rocks exposed, vegetation patterns, differential erosion, etc.

Lecture 12
Earthquake Cause:
Stress is applied by plate movement
Strain accumulates during elastic deformation Rocks suddenly break.
Continued plate motion leads to repeated cycles

p-waves: forward and backward s-waves: up and down

seismic waves also travel on surface- these do most damage quakes do not occur below 670 km depth

Seismic Hazards: Structures destroyed by displacement and shaking Landslides are triggered Tsunamis Fires from ruptured gas lines Dam and aqueduct failure Infrastructure removed (hospitals, roads, power, etc)

Earth can be divided into layers based on the strength of the rocks. The outer layer is called the lithosphere. It is cool, strong and much of the deformation in response to stress is elastic or brittle. Below this layer is the asthenosphere, a hotter weak layer that behaves plastically. The lithosphere is divided into regions that move coherently, called plates. Earthquakes occur at plate boundaries, where adjacent plates move in different directions. Driving Mechanism: Plates move in response to stresses created by gravity. Dense materials sink into Earth’s interiors, while less dense materials rise. Density contrasts develop Crust (5-60 km) thick—least density material
Mantle (2900 km thick)
Core (3500 km radius)--- outer 2/3 is liquid, inner 1/3 is solid

Lesson 13
Modern Plate Tonics

Near Surface Observations to explain * Landforms: Mountains, Rift valleys, and Trenches * Earthquake and Volcano Locations * “Continental Drift”

What are the Eons of the Geologic Time Scale?
Phanerozoic
Proterozoic
Achaean
Hadean
What are the Eras of the Phanerozoic?
Paleozoic (ancient life)
Mesozoic (middle life)
Cenozoic (recent life)
What are the Periods of the Paleozoic?
Cambrian (oldest)
Ordovician
Silurian
Devonian
Carboniferous
Permian

Continental—Granite
Oceanic—Basalt
Upper Mantle—More Fe, Mg

Sources of Heat: * Radioactive decay of U, Th, 40K * Planetary accretion * Iron crystallization in outer core

Mantle tomography * Uses very large numbers of seismic records from many stations * High-velocity(blue) and low velocity(red) zones can be distinguished in the mantle

Plate Tectonics explains:
Wegner’s observations:

Plate Boundaries: * Divergent (constructive)
Extension= normal faults Example = Mid-Atlantic Ridge * Convergent (destructive)
Compression= reverse faults Examples= Aleutian Trench, Peru-Chile Trench * Conservative (no lithosphere made or lost)
Shear= transform or lateral faults
Examples= San Andreas Fault, Mendocino Fracture zone

Lesson 15 10/24/13 Thurs

Present Tectonics in W.NA * Subduction in Pacific NW * Rifting in Gulf of CA * San Andreas site of horizontal motion

Will California fall into the sea?
Southern California is attached to Pacific Plate
Relative motion of Pacific Plate to NA is 5 cm/yr
SF and LA are 600 km apart

How long will it take to be neighbors?

How did west coast evolve? 3 phases:
I: Subduction of Farallon Plate (important) (Sierras crystallize & Great Valley forms)
II: Subduction of a ridge segment about 25 my ago (SAF first forms, also LA Basin opens)
III: Subduction of 2nd ridge segment 3-5 my ago (Gulf of CA opens, Transverse Ranges rise)

Remnant Farallon Plate becomes Juan de Fuca and Cocos Plate

Geologic History of CA: Phase 1= Assembly of Western NA * Western N.Am. has been subduction zones form most of last 600 my.

Laramide Orogeny (80-40 my) * Rapid subduction deforms WNA far inland (folds ancestral Rocky Mts) * Then subduction slows and Pacific Plate changes direction

Phase II and III= Subduction of Ridges
Phase II * Farallon Plate is subducting under N.Am. * Ridge enters subduction zone 20-30 my (near LA) * Proto-San Andreas forms

Phase III * Second ridge segment enters subduction zone 3-5 my below Baja * Gulf of CA opens * Transverse Ranges rise as bend on San Andreas develops * Sierra uplift as Basin and Range develops (last 5-8 my)

Key Issues about fossils
Definition: Remains, trance, or imprint of an organism from a previous geologic time

Mechanisms of Preservation
Most likely environment for preservation: * Rapid burial (protection) * Low oxygen concentration (reduce decomposition) * Low energy (avoiod breakage)

Coral—recrystallize

Permineralization: (void fill in with minerals)
Cretaceous Amoonities, Pyrite, Calcite

Replacement: chert (quartz)
Deposited as wood decomposed (nucleates on organic template)

Use of Fossils: * Relative dating (index fossils are important) * Study evolution (principle of biologic succession) * Define times of global change (catastrophic or gradual) * Determine paleoclimate * Determine paleogeography (connection of regions) * Shells may record chemical/isotopic composition of water * Great Christmas presents

Range of fossils
Remember pattern of biologic succession: Appearance and disappearance of organism have the same pattern everywhere

Lesson 17 Thursday, October 31, 2013
Extinction 2010 (graph)

Cenozoic mammals birds
Mesozoic reptiles amphibians
Paleozoic land plants

Possible causes of extinction: (few species) * New predators * Loss of habitat or food perhaps new competitors * Climate change * Virus (probably species specific)

Possible causes of mass extinction
Global change?

Evidence for K-T Bolide Impact
Many lost species (large reptiles, 90% of ocean plankton, ammonoides, reef building rudists, many plants) Some small mammals survived. Extinction was abrupt
Iridium anomaly world wide
Impact ejecta (shocked quartz, glass speheres )
Rapid weathering (acid rain)
Tsunami deposits in gulf coast
Chixulub crater (180 km diameter in yucata)
Impacts do not seem to explain all mass extinctions

P-T Extinction
Ocean Carbon cycle: Dead plankton sinks to deep sea
Corg + O2 + H2O= H+ +HCO3 (Oxic- normal)
Corg + SO4 -2 + H2O=2hco3 +h2s (anoxic- Permian?)

Ocean Acidification
In about 40000 yrs, massive amounts of basalt (about 200 million km3) poured out, also releasing CO2 ad sulfur oxide gases
These would acidify the ocean and probably cause severe climate impacts, which may have been responsible for killing about 76 % of the marine and terrestrial species particularly those with shells.
Co2+ h2o + caco3 = ca 2+ +

Other mass extinctions
Late Ordovician (444 my ago)
Late Devonian (360-380 my ago)

Magnetics * Declimation = rotation * Inclination = change in latitude

Tuesday, November 12, 2013
O2 evolution: evidence for oxygen-free early earth 1. Solar system is H2-rich. Before core formation: Fe+H2O-FeO+H2 predicts that H2/H2O—1. However, today, H2/H2O—0.01 in volcanic gases 2. Life evolves. Need some HCN, HCOOH to make amino acids, nucleotides, and sugars. This cannot happen if free oxygen exists 3. Detrital pyrite and urananite found only in deposits before 2.3by 4. Ancient soil deposits (paleosols older than 1.5 by) show that Fe dissolved during weathering. This can only happen in absence of O2/ 5. Banded iron deposits from early, mainly 3.5 to 1.9 by 6. Red beds abundant during last 2 by

Key events in History of Atmosphere:
Earth Accretes. Initial atmosphere swept away by T.Tauri solar wind.
Water and other gases (including Ar) released from mantle during volcanism, or added by comet impacts. Early atm. rich in N2, CO2, H2O,CH4(?)
Oxygen is added later by 2 sources: 1. Photodissociation of water vapor (self-limiting):
H2O+ UV—H2 (escape to SPACE) + O2 (TO ATM.) 2. Photosynthesis releases O2 (waster), that says in atmosphere as organic material is buried:
CO2+ H2O—CH2O (BURY)+O2 (TO ATM.)

But oxygen is also removed by respiration and weathering of rocks. What controls content of gases that are cycled, like O2,CO2,H2O?

O2 Cycle Dynamics
Net Photosynthesis (Source of O2)
CO2+ H2O—CH2O (BURY)+O2 (TO ATM.)
Nest Weathering (Sink for O2)
CH2O + O2—CO2+ H2O
These reactions are nearly in balance. Any imbalance will cause atmospheric O2 to increase or decrease

Wilson Cycle: Rift Subduct Collide Rift

Tools for Locating Past Continent positions * Fossils depending on climate * Alignment of geological features * Geometrical fit of continental margins * Similarity of fossil record in distant lands * Deposits depending on climate (coal, bauxite, evaporates, glacial tills) * Paleomagnetism (declination=rotation, inclination=latitude)

Thursday, November 14, 2013
What regulates planetary temperature?
Global Heat Balance: Energy out=Energy in (some sunlight is reflected)
Energy in = (Solar output)(pi r2)(1-A)/(4pi R2)
Energy out= (4pi r2)sigma T4 r=Earth radius R= Earth Sun distance A=Albedo (reflections) T=K

Calculate expected black body temperature
(mainly IR) (mainly visible)
Energy Out= Energy In (per unit area basis) Sigma T4= (Solar output)(1-A)/(16 pi R2)
For A=0.30 T=255K =-18 C

Critical Factors (Time Scales of Variability): 1. Solar output- increase by 40% over 4.5 by. Short term variation? 2. Earth-sun distance- average constant but orbit shape varies, causing seasonality (summer/ winter contrast) to vary. Leads to North hemisphere glaciations “Ice Ages”. TIME SCALES OF 22-110 KY. 3. Albedo (A)- ice cover, dust, cloud cover can change. Time scales of centuries to sub-annual. 4. Greenhouse effect- can change with H2O, CO2, CH4 content. Time scales of millions of years to decades. 5. Efficiency of heat transport from equator to poles dictate uniformity of T. Can vary with mountains, continent position, and location of deep water formation. Time scales may be larger than 10 my to sub-decadal when deep water source changes

Some Major Changes in Climate:
Known amplitude of changes
Precambrian (about 700-800 my ago): glaciers present near equator
Cenozoic (last 65 my): high latitude drops from 12C to below 0C
Pleistocene (last 2 my): High latitudes oscillate by 5-10C on 20-100 ky times

Evidence that climate changes:
Glacial landforms- tell us
Climate Records
Landforms give ice extent (not continuous, hard to date)
More continuous records: 1. Sedimentary rocks (to 2.5 by) 2. Ocean sediments (last 150 my) 3. Ice cores (annual to millennial resolution, to about 700 ky) 4. Tree rings (annual resolution, last 10 ky) 5. Corals (seasonal resolution, last 2—10 ky) 6. Lake sediments (often decades to centuries to many ky) 7. Speleothems (cave deposits, centuries to many ky) 8. Historical records (decades to few hundred years)

Tuesday, November 19, 2013
Energy Sources
Fermentation
C6H12O6—2CO2+2C6H12OH (alcohol)+ENERGY
Photosynthesis

Metabolism in Hydrothermal System

Thursday, November 21, 2013
Fossil fuels
Coal forms from remains of land plants
Oil forms from remains of algae

Tuesday, November 26, 2013
Ice core record
Temperature from isotopes
Aluminum= silicate dust

Forams grow CaCO3 shells

Forams put on heavy coats because: 1. Ice sheet are light, so oceans are heavy 2. At lower temperatures,

Mechanism to make climate vary 1. Change in solar output 2. Change earth-sun distance 3. Change in albedo 4. Change in atmosphere 5. Change efficiency of heat transport to poles

90% will cover the last 1/3 contents

Recap
A few geologic events in the Historical Record
-Migration of humans to North America
-Lost continent of Atlantis
-What is the Great Flood described in the Bible?

Coelomate phylogeny
Coelomates are organisms with a body cavity to process food
Branches are random, facilitated by environmental factors