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1. ЯЗЫКОВАЯ СИТУАЦИЯ
I. ЯС: набор и взаимоотношение языков, используемых в опр этнической общности или адм-тер объединении, в отношении которых население этих территорий придерживается опр соц. установок. * Компонентами ЯС мб: самостоятельные языки и их диалекты. * ЯС бывает простой и сложной, а по числу участвующих в ней языков/диалектов: двух, трех- и более компонентной. * Участниками языковой ситуации являются ЯЗЫКИ-МАКРОПОСРЕДНИКИ (англ. в Индии, фр.+англ. в бывших афр. колониях), региональные языки, местные, ритуальные (культовые).
II. Национальная языковая ситуация
В России - 180 языков, из которых только 30 имеют устойчивую письменную традицию. Русский – гос. язык и язык межнационального общения. 1991 = закон «О языках народов РСФСР», в котором русский язык объявлен государственным на всей России. Этот статус русского языка подтвержден в Конституции РФ от 1993. НО! * Республики вправе устанавливать свои гос. языки. В органах гос. власти, местного самоуправления, гос. учреждениях республик они употребляются наряду с русским. * РФ гарантирует всем ее народам право на сохранение родного языка, создание условий для его изучения и развития
III. Вопрос с многоязычием по-разному решается в разных странах.
1 Финляндия: два гос языка — финский и шведский, хотя шведов всего 6 %. Изучение обоих обязательно. В высш. обр. - на любом из них по выбору. Двуязычны документы, объявления. Все служащие обязаны владеть обоими языками; при вступлении в должность президент принимает присягу на двух языках.
2 Индия: население – 1 млрд. Около 800 я. Гос: хинди + англ. Мусульмане: англ+ урду. В некоторых штатах: англ+местный. Англ – язык межнац общения. На нем ведется официальная деловая переписка и высшее образование, которое можно получить и на хинди и в некоторых штатах — на родном языке. Т.О. в Индии трехъязычие — английский, хинди, родной.
3 Сев. Африка: англ+фр в роли языков-макропосредников: 90 % ученых публикуют работы на англ. В качестве регионального - укрепляет позиции суахили (60 млн чел) — он госуд-ый в Кении и Танзании, на нем говорят в Бурунди, Заире, Мозамбике, Сомали, Руанде, в Судане, на Мадагаскаре.
4 Бл. Восток и Египет: роль регионального – арабский.
5 Швейцария: три гос. языка — нем (родной для 65 %), фр (18 %), ит (12 %); 1% - говорит на ретороманском, идущем от древних этрусков. Жители имеют право изъясняться на любом. Указы и документы на четырех. Судопроизводство - на трех.
6 Бельгия: нет единого общегос языка. Используются фламандский (6,5 млн) и фр (3,5 млн). На севере - все делопроизводство по-фламандски, на юге - по-фр. В документах, в устных обращениях соблюдается обязательное двуязычие.
7 Люксембург: немецко-фр-люксембургское трехъязычие. В начальных классах - на люксембургском, в средних — на немецком, в старших — на фр. Выбор языка обусловлен социальными факторами : люксембургский - как средство общения, немецкий - более образованными слоями, французский — высшими слоями.
8 Пакистан: 24 самостоятельных языка и много диалектов, официал – урду. 9 Индонезия:, около 200 языков, госуд - малайский. Но есть и др лит. яз. — яванский, сундинский, мадурский. 10 В Афганистане - 30 языков, но более половины говорит на пушту, который резко отличается от второго по распространенности — дари.
11 Сингапур: четыре офиц языка — китайский, малайский, тамильский и английский. Последний объявлен рабочим и обязательным для всех.
12 Эфиопия: 85 языков, не считая английского, арабского и итальянского. Обучение в школах - на 15 языках.
Теперь понятно, почему в многоязычных странах выбор языка на роль государственного или языка нац. общения наталкивается на большие трудности. Сравнительно легко на роль общенационального выходит такой язык, который политически нейтрален, родствен местным языкам, является родным для большого числа жителей страны, равномерно распределенных по ее территории. Но во многих странах такого нет.
В России налицо тенденция к укреплению позиций русского языка при сохранении роли родных языков в обиходно-бытовом, семейном общении.
2. ТИПЫ ДВУЯЗЫЧИЯ
У человека, владеющего только родным языком (у монолингва), устанавливается прочная и устойчивая связь между мышлением и способом его языкового выражения.
Способность владеть 2 языками в той или иной мере – билингвизм. А ЧК, владеющий 2 языками – билингв. Связи между языком и мышлением у билингвов сложнее, чем у монолингвов, причём характер этих связей определяется типом билингвизма.
Билингвизм чистого вида наблюдается, когда речевые механизмы чка, говорящего на 2 языках, функционируют независимо др от др, т. е. два языка употребляются не вперемежку, а изолированно один от другого. Например, человек на работе говорит на одном языке (неродной), а дома - на другом, на родном. Если билингв - ребёнок, говорящий дома на одном языке, а в школе на другом, то он может даже не сознавать, что он говорит на двух языках.
Билингвизм смешанного типа - у людей, использующих оба языка постоянно, с переходом с одного на др в одной и той же обстановке в зависимости от того, на каком языке говорит их собеседник. При смешанном типе билингвизма между речевыми механизмами чка имеется постоянная связь, которая оказывает на речь влияние, выражающееся в непроизвольном смешении средств обоих языков во внешней речи.
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3. ЯВЛЕНИЕ ИНТЕРФЕРЕНЦИИ
Неосознанное употребление элементов одного языка в речи, относящейся к другому языку, носит название интерференции. И. – взаимодействие яз систем в условиях двуязычия, складывающегося либо при яз контактах, либо при инд. освоении неродного языка. Выражается в отклонении от нормы и системы неродного языка под влиянием родного. 1) И. проявляется как иноязычный акцент в речи чка, владеющего 2мя языками. Он мб стабильным и приходящим. 2) И. способна охватывать все уровни языка, но ярче проявляется на фонетическом. 3) Гл. источник И. – расхождение в системах взаимодейст-х языков (различный состав, соотношение интегральных и дифференциальных признаков). 4) Отношение между смешиваемыми звуками (субститутами) взаимодействующих языков при И. называют диафоническими, а сами звуки родного языка, заменяющие звуки другого – диафоны. *Аналогичные явления возможны в грамматической лексике. 5) И., происходившая в прошлом, может оставлять следы в системе языка в виде субстрата и суперстрата. 6) При чистом билингвизме в сознании чка образуется связанные с материальной оболочкой слова непосредственно, а при смешанном он может иметь с материальной оболочкой и прямую связь и через слово родного языка. 7) При чистом билингвизме ЧК затрачивает на номинацию предмета 3,5 секунды на обоих языках. При смешанном – до 8 сек на второй (неродном языке) т.к. сначала ищем на родном, потом переводим.
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Смешанный тип билингвизма имеет несколько разновидностей.
Рецептивный - когда чк понимает второй язык, но не может на нём говорить. Возникает при самостоятельном изучении ин. языка по письменным источникам, при дешифровке алфавитных систем. Связь языка с мышлением при РБ проявляется в зрительной (оптической) форме, тогда как другие материальные формы связи языка и мышления не наблюдаются (например, моторная и акустические связи, наиболее естественные и прочные для родного языка).
Репродуктивный - понимает и может воспроизводить вслух или про себя прочитанный текст (услышанную речь), причём воспроизведение текста (речи) не обязательно соответствует акустическим нормам второго языка, в частности, при изучении его по письменным источникам.
Продуктивный - понимать и воспроизводить текст (речь) неродного языка, но и порождать его, т. е. в умении самостоятельно строить предложения на втором языке независимо от того; соответствуют ли эти предложения нормам изучаемого языка.
Билет №4. Языковые контакты
Своеобразие конкретного языка зависит от 2 факторов: 1. Его происхождение, опр место в круге родственных языков 2. Процесс его взаимодействия с родственными и не- языками, т.е. языковые контакты. ЯК можно рассматривать на 3 уровнях: 1) Социолингвистическом (определенная языковая система) 2) психолингвистическом (индивидуальное двуязычие) 3) Собственно лингвистическом
1. Контакты между народами, возникающие в результате войн, миграций, освоения новых земель и по другим причинам, сопровождаются языковыми контактами. Последствия этих контактов бывают значительными — вплоть до исчезновения одних языков и возникновения др.
2. Большую роль ЯК впервые отметил австрийский лингвист Гуго Шухардт. А Марр взаимодетсвие языков называл скрещиванием и считал, что это ед причина яз развития. Сейчас вместо термина «скрещивание» принят термин А. Мартине и У. Вайнрайха - «ЯК».
3. Среди типов языковых контактов различают – сотрудничество приспособление,соперничествоконфликт.
В результате сотрудничества : взаимное обогащение, создаются новые языки, добровольное принятие одного из языков в качестве средства общения.
В условиях приспособления к чужому языку создаются пиджины (упрощенные коммуникативные системы для общения людей с разными родными языками). Стараясь быть понятым, говорящий адаптирует свой язык, не пользуется синонимами, идиомами. Это языки по нужде.
***Существующие пиджины - максимально упрощенные англ, фр, порт, исп и другие.
Вот примеры из англоязычного пиджина на островах Тихого океана. Мн.ч. местоимений - словом two (два): me two fella (буквально: я два парень) — мы. Отношения принадлежности - с помощью belong (принадлежать): рарра belong me — мой отец.
В ряде случаев пиджины становятся основой новых т.н. КРЕОЛЬСКИХ ЯЗЫКОВ, которыми уже пользуется все местное население. Исследователи насчитывают более 120 пиджинов и креольских языков. Если креольский язык существует наряду с несколькими местными языками и используется для взаимопонимания лиц с разными родными языками, - лингва-франка.
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В условиях соперничества и конфликта, обычно очень незначительные результаты, они выражаются в заимствовании отдельных слов чужого языка.
4. По роли языков различают субстрат, суперстрат и адстрат.
Субстрат — язык коренного населения, который разрушился в результате контакта с языком пришельцев, но оставил некоторые свои элементы.
Суперстрат — язык пришельцев, который воздействовал на язык местного населения, но не разрушил его системы, а обогатил.
Адстрат — язык, элементы которого в большом количестве включились в систему другого языка, но сам язык продолжает свое существование на другой, соседней территории.
5. По форме различаются
- контакты на границах территории, занятой опр языком (маргинальное контактирование),
- контакты по всей территории, на которой совместно проживают люди, говорящие на разных языках (внутрирегиональное контактирование).
6. НАРОДЫ, ГОВОРЯЩИЕ НА НЕРОДСТВЕННЫХ ЯЗЫКАХ, МОГУТ ОБРАЗОВЫВАТЬ ТАК НАЗЫВАЕМЫЕ ЯЗЫКОВЫЕ СОЮЗЫ.
О таких союзах писал Б. де Куртенэ, а сам термин укрепился в лингвистике после работы Н. С. Трубецкого «Вавилонская башня и смешение языков»
Пражские лингвисты, изучая языки Балканского полуострова, обнаружили, что территориальная близость и повседневные контакты людей, говорящих на неродственных языках, ведут к появлению одинаковых процессов в языковой семантике, в грамматике языков.
В состав Балканского ЯС входят болгарский, румынский, греческий и албанский языки. Общность: 1) в упрощении падежной системы, 2) в развитии опр артикля (причем постпозитивного), 3) в утрате инфинитива и замене его придаточными предложениями, 4) в общих моделях некоторых будущих и прошедших времен, 5) в сходстве моделей образования числительных от 11 до 19 6) в большем количестве общей лексики.
Есть еще ЯС: 1) Поволжский (финно-угорские, удмуртский и тюркские — башкирский, татарский, чувашский); 2) Центрально-Азиатский (группа языков индоевропейской и тибетско-китайской семей). 3) Балтийский (скандинавские, балтийские, эстонский) Общ - вокализм, тональность. *шведский и финский – разные, но на слух похожи.

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