...ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM Enlightened despots believed that political change could best come from above; from the ruler. However, they were encouraged by the philosophers to make good laws to promote human happiness. How did these monarchs differ from earlier unenlightened monarchs of the past? The difference lay in tempo. These new despots acted abruptly and desired quicker results. They were impatient with all that stood in the way of their reforms. In addition, they justified their authority on the grounds of usefulness, not divine right. These new monarchs were rational and reformist and they regarded political change as possible and desirable. Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, and Joseph II are good examples of Enlightened Despots. Frederick II (Frederick the Great), the most famous Prussian absolute monarch and a military genius, pursued an aggressive foreign policy. In 1740 he seized from Austria the province of Silesia. His action culminated in a major European conflict, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), in which he was pitted against a powerful European coalition of Austria, Russia, and France. Frederick, aided only by England, barely managed to retain Silesia. In 1772 Frederick shared in the first partition of Poland by annexing western Poland. Frederick the Great was an almost perfect example of the enlightened despot. He was familiar with the ideas of the eighteenth-century reformers and a friend of Voltaire. Many of the philosophers, including Voltaire...
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...'PETERSON DESIR PROF: SMITH-PETER CLASS: HST- 275 Catherine the Great was and remains one of the most important figures in Russian history. During her thirty-four-year reign Russia has greatly prospered not only materially , but more importantly intellectually, which played a vital role in the modernization or the westernization of Russia a couple centuries later. Evidently, analyzing her long reign through the prism of what is considered as democracy today, one could depict its very faults and blemishes. However, we should view her reign as it was then , but not as it should have been nowadays. Whether somebody coined it as an enlightened absolutism, the real truth remained : Catherine the Great has brought Enlightenment to Russia, the European Enlightenment. What was it, Enlightenment?- It was a philosophical movement that greatly fostered rational thinking, the use of science over traditions and superstitions, and also promoted freedom ,security and equality before law for all people. Catherine was thrilled by such great ideas. She devoted herself to reading and established a great line of correspondence with the true leaders of the movement such as Voltaire, Diderot, Bossuet,etc..In her letters, she overtly expressed her intention of becoming an adept of the movement. She started in creating schools and reforming the educational system. She Turned to Voltaire for advice. As an Enlightenment's follower, she was deeply interested...
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...'PETERSON DESIR PROF: SMITH-PETER CLASS: HST- 275 Catherine the Great was and remains one of the most important figures in Russian history. During her thirty-four-year reign Russia has greatly prospered not only materially , but more importantly intellectually, which played a vital role in the modernization or the westernization of Russia a couple centuries later. Evidently, analyzing her long reign through the prism of what is considered as democracy today, one could depict its very faults and blemishes. However, we should view her reign as it was then , but not as it should have been nowadays. Whether somebody coined it as an enlightened absolutism, the real truth remained : Catherine the Great has brought Enlightenment to Russia, the European Enlightenment. What was it, Enlightenment?- It was a philosophical movement that greatly fostered rational thinking, the use of science over traditions and superstitions, and also promoted freedom ,security and equality before law for all people. Catherine was thrilled by such great ideas. She devoted herself to reading and established a great line of correspondence with the true leaders of the movement such as Voltaire, Diderot, Bossuet,etc..In her letters, she overtly expressed her intention of becoming an adept of the movement. She started in creating schools and reforming the educational system. She Turned to Voltaire for advice. As an Enlightenment's follower, she was deeply interested...
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...an apparent trend of a despotic society entering an age of prosperity and undergoing a societal transition from monarchies and despotism to a more humanistic form of government. This transformation occurs because, in times of strife, the state comes to the awareness that internally, monarchical and aristocratic forms of governance results in the bounties of the age are being consumed in ways that do not overall benefit the people or nation. Therefore, these enlightened thinkers attempt to rectify this mismanagement by reforming the systems of the nation so that the national production is allocated where it is most needed. However, these societies have almost all failed in their attempt to create a more equal form of society. Humanity at its core is self-serving and power hungry, and even those with the purest intentions can quickly fall into becoming those that they once fought...
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...This pictorial gives a quick look in to history regarding America’s relations with surrounding nations. Aguinaldo’s criticism of America’s policies towards the Philippines echo in the 1894 cartoon is when the Spanish was eradicated from the Philippines. It was at this moment that the American guerrilla began. Cuba was under the Spanish control and America became an ally and attempted to free Cuba from their tyrannical control. The Spanish also controlled the countries of Puerto Rico and Guam at this time. Due to the corrupt treatment, Aguinaldo deciphered that those in America viewed all native of the Philippines as savages. Due to this view the land of the Philippine Island was transformed from “a land of despotism and vicious governmental methods into an enlightened and progressive republic, with America guiding them”. The documents suggest that American citizenship would not be allowed to people who were conquered. This believe was established because Americans believed that those individuals that were conquered would first need to be taught how to live as an American. This included exposure to discipline and the American standards. Aguinaldo expressed that he “refused to accept the American policies because of the...
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...Meiji Japan. In 1867/68, the Tokugawa era found an end in the Meiji Restoration. The emperor Meiji was moved from Kyototo Tokyo which became the new capital; his imperial power was restored. The actual political power was transferred from the Tokugawa Bakufu into the hands of a small group of nobles and former samurai. Like other subjugated Asian nations, the Japanese were forced to sign unequal treaties with Western powers. These treaties granted the Westerners one-sided economical and legal advantages in Japan. In order to regain independence from the Europeans and Americans and establish herself as a respected nation in the world, Meiji Japan was determined to close the gap to the Western powers economically and militarily. Drastic reforms were carried out in practically all areas. The new government aimed to make Japan a democratic state with equality among all its people. The boundaries between the social classes of Tokugawa Japan were gradually broken down. Consequently, the samurai were the big losers of those social reforms since they lost all their privileges. The reforms also included the establishment of human rights such as religious freedom in 1873. In order to stabilize the new government, the former feudal lords (daimyo) had to return all their lands to the emperor. This was achieved already in 1870 and followed by the restructuring of the country in prefectures. The education system was reformed after the French and later after the German system. Among those...
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... was stagnation. Stagnation bred weakness in the states of the Mediterranean, which partially explains the ease with which Rome was able to steadily expand its reach beginning in the 3rd century B.C. By the first century B.C., Rome was the undisputed master of the Mediterranean. However, peace did not follow Rome’s victory, for civil wars sapped its strength. Rome’s power hungry leaders and government lead to the downfall of their powerful civilization. Following the murder of Caesar in 44 B.C. His adopted son Octavian finally brought an end to internal strife with his defeat of Mark Antony in the battle of Actium in 31 B.C. Octavian’s victory was due in no small part to his championing of Roman economic freedom against the Oriental despotism of Egypt represented by Antony, who had fled to Egypt and married Cleopatra in 36 B.C. As Oertel (1934: 386) put it, “The victory of Augustus and of the West meant... a repulse of the tendencies towards State capitalism and State socialism which might have come to fruition ... had Antony and Cleopatra been victorious.” The long years of war, however, had taken a heavy toll on the Roman economy. Steep taxes and requisitions of supplies by the army, as well as rampant inflation and the closing of trade...
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...FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN GRADES 17 & 16 UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, 1971 ENGLISH ESSAY Maximum marks: 100 C SS .C O M .P Note: Write an essay in ENGLISH on ONE of the following: 1. Man as part of a design infinitely vaster than himself. 2. Knowledge demands love as its complement. 3. The amusement mania. 4. The art of feature films made in Pakistan. 5. Art and Religion. 6. Education of freedom. 7. Brain-washing. 8. The lessons of the past. 9. Requisites for social progress in Pakistan. 10. How words change our lives? 11. Man is condemned to be free. 12. Leaders and followers. K Time allowed: 3 hours ENGLISH ESSAY EXAMINATION 1972 Maximum marks: 100 C SS .C O M .P Write an essay in English on One of the following: 1. Relevance of Islam to Science. 2. The sanctity of law. 3. Competitive results of planned economy? 4. The sick soul. 5. The strategy of political warfare. 6. “If’ in History. 7. Psychology and its social meaning. 8. Reverence for life. 9. International morality. 10. The divided self and the process of its unification. 11. Statesmen and Diplomatists. 12. The foundations of the feature. K Time allowed: 3 hours ENGLISH ESSAY EXAMINATION 1973 Time allowed: 3 hours Maximum marks: 100 1. (a) Make an outline for writing an Essay in English on One of the following subjects: (b) Write the Essay on the subject you...
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...LORD MACAULAY THE MAN WHO STARTED IT ALL, AND HIS MINUTE M. S. Thirumalai, Ph. D. This article may be read in three parts: the first part deals with the life and times of Lord Macaulay, and the second part presents Macaulay's Minute on Indian Education. The third part presents the objections raised against Macaulay's Minute by Prinsep, a Secretary who dealt with matters of education in the government then. This third part presents also the orders issued by William Bentinck, the then Governor General, that upheld Macaulay's Minute, and a discussion on the identity of views held by Ram Mohun Roy and Macaulay. I believe that Macaulay's Minute is better understood and appreciated if we have some understaning of the man who wrote it. Macaulay was an extra-ordinary administrator, master of English prose, and statesman. Remember Macaulay was writing his Minute nearly 175 years ago. 1. A BRIEF SOJOURN, AN ENDURING IMPACT Lord Macaulay (Thomas Babington Macaulay) was born on October 25, 1800, and died on December 28, 1859. He arrived in India (Madras) on 10th June 1834 as a member of the Supreme Council of India. William Bentinck was the then Governor General. He returned to England early 1838, and resumed his writing career there. Macaulay was in India, thus, only for nearly four years, but he was destined to impact the lives of millions of Indians forever. 2. MACAULAY'S FAMILY Lord Macaulay's father Zachary Macaulay himself had seen overseas service in the West Indies and Sierra Leone...
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...control of the Condottiero (mercenary) Sforza- Significant because after this, a few wealthy families dominated Venice (e.g. Medici) Humanism: Francesco Petrarch (Sonnets), came up with term “Dark Ages”, began to study classical world of rhetoric and literature Cicero: Important Roman, provided account of collapse of Roman Republic [like Edward Gibbon], invented Ciceronian style: Latin style of writing which humanists followed • [Even though they weren’t in Rome, Humanists did as the Romans do] Despite being accused of following Pagan culture, Petrarch talked a lot about universality Civic Humanists: Politicians/ diplomats, utilized public education for common good Plato: Studying Greek allowed enlightened people to observe platonic ideals [also, big fat...
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...Hajj (The Pilgrimage ) Dr. Ali Shariati Translated by: Ali A. Behzadnia, M.D. & Najla Denny Prepared by the Evecina Cultural & Education Foundation (ECEF) P.O Box 11402 - Costa Mesa, CA 92627 Copyrights Preserved Published by Jubilee Press Reproduced with permission by the Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project team About the Author Dr. Ali Shariati was born in Mazinan, a suburb of Mashad, Iran. He completed his elementary and high school in Mashad. In his years at the Teacher's Training College, he came into contact with youth who were from the lower economic strata of the society and tasted the poverty and hardship that existed. At the age of eighteen, he started as a teacher and ever since had been a student as well as a teacher. After graduating from college in 1960, on a scholarship he pursued graduate studies in France. Dr. Shariati, an honor student, received his doctorate in sociology in 1964. When he returned to Iran he was arrested at the border and imprisoned on the pretext that he had participated in political activities while studying in France. Released in 1965, he began teaching again at Mashad University. As a Muslim sociologist, he sought to explain the problems of Muslim societies in the light of Islamic principles - explaining them and discussing them with his students. Very soon, he gained popularity with the students and different social classes in Iran. For this reason, the regime felt obliged to discontinue his courses at the university. Then...
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...|1853 Most Difficult Words | |(for GRE, CAT, GMAT) | | | |Word List with Meanings | |(This word list is formatted narrow to make it suitable for printing) | | By Raj Bapna | |Dear Friend, | | You now have in your hands a very valuable list of 1,853 most difficult words that can give you an edge over others for your success| |in your exam. This is my gift to you with my best wishes for your big success in exam and in life. | |This list is taken from the vocab books of Vocab-Builder Mind Machine, which is a topper�s ultimate vocab system. | |This list is free to you. ...
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...Course: European Political History Required Sources: A History of Modern Europe 1789-1981, 7th Edition, H.L. Peacock (available at GAU library) The Pneguin History of the World, 3rd Edition, by J.M. Roberts (available at GAU library) Recommended Sources: Donald Kagan et al: A Political History of Europe, since 1814 by Charles Seignobos, S. M. Macvane, The Western Heritage, Brief Edition, 2003 Websites: The course focuses on European history from the early 17th century to the end of the Second World War. The following aspects of political history of five selected countries - France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy and Spain- are covered : early kingdoms, unification, nationalism movements, political philosophies, conferences, alliance systems and conflicts which had an impact on Europe during the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th Centuries.Topics such as the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, the Concert of Europe, and the two world wars will also be discussed. Special emphasis will be placed on the relationship between the rise of liberalism and nationalism, the industrial revolution, and the emergence of modern political systems in Europe. Contents Introduction Chapter 1 Political history of France : Chapter 2 Political history of Germany: Chapter 3 Political history of Great Britain: Chapter 4 Political history of Italy: Chapter 5 Political history of Spain: Introduction In studying political history of European states, we put a focus on the beginning of...
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...Th e T yranny of Gui lt • Pa s c a l B ru c k n e r Translated from the French by s t ev e n r e n da l l The tyranny of Guilt An Essay on Western Masochism • P r i n c e t o n u n i v e r si t y P r e s s Princeton and Oxford english translation copyright © 2010 by Princeton university Press First published as La tyrannie de la pénitence: essai sur le masochisme occidental by Pascal Bruckner, copyright © 2006 by Grasset & Fasquelle Published by Princeton university Press, 41 William street, Princeton, new Jersey 08540 in the united kingdom: Princeton university Press, 6 oxford street, Woodstock, oxfordshire OX20 1TW press.princeton.edu all rights reserved library of congress cataloging-in-Publication data Bruckner, Pascal. [tyrannie de la pénitence. english] The tyranny of guilt: an essay on Western masochism / Pascal Bruckner; translated from the French by steven rendall. p. cm. includes index. isBn 978-0-691-14376-7 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. civilization, Western— 20th century. 2. civilization, Western—21st century. 3. international relations—Moral and ethical aspects. 4. Western countries—Foreign relations. 5. Western countries—intellectual life. 6. Guilt 7. self-hate (Psychology) 8. World politics. i. title. CB245.B7613 2010 909’.09821--dc22 2009032666 British library cataloging-in-Publication data is available cet ouvrage, publié dans le cadre d’un programme d’aide à la publication, bénéficie du soutien du Ministère des affaires étrangères et du service...
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...transition, a few of which refer positively to the emergence of a new type of social system (such as the "information society" or the "consumer society") but most of which suggest rather that a -- 2 -- preceding state of affairs is drawing to a close ("post-modernity," "post-modernism," "post-industrial society," "post-capitalism," and so forth). Some of the debates about these matters concentrate mainly upon institutional transformations, particularly those which propose that we are moving from a system based upon the manufacture of material goods to one concerned more centrally with information. More commonly, however, these controversies are focused largely upon issues of philosophy and epistemology. This is the characteristic outlook, for example, of the author who has been primarily responsible for popularising the notion of post-modernity, Jean-François Lyotard. 1 As he represents it, post-modernity refers to a shift away from attempts to...
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