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Management Control System Journal

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Management Control Systems | Tugas Individu - Kajian Penelitan Empiris | |

By :
Christian Cahyadi Santoso (11/326761/PEK/16366)
Kelas Akhir Pekan Angkatan 22A

|
Magister Management
Universitas Gadjah Mada

Pendahuluan

Sistem Pengendalian Manajemen(SPM) mempelajari mengenai bagaimana suatu sistem dirancang untuk mengendalikan suatu perusahaan. SPM menerapkan berbagai sistem dalam perusahaan agar dapat memberikan kinerja terbaiknya, contohnya penerapan sistem anggaran, sistem penilaian kinerja, sistem pemberian kompensasi, struktur pusat pertanggungjawaban, penentuan alokasi biaya atau harga transfer antar bisnis unit dan lain-lain. Dalam sistem kontrol manajemen terdapat beberapa aktivitas yang dilakukan antara lain, perencanaan, koordinasi, komunikasi, evaluasi, pengambilan keputusan dan mempengaruhi orang lain agar mau melakukan sesuai dengan yang diinginkan.
Pada penerapan SPM terdapat salah satu alat yang digunakan yaitu Sistem Penilaian Kinerja (SPK). Tujuan utama dari adanya SPK adalah melakukan implementasi strategi. Mekanisme penilaian kinerja yang baik dan sesuai akan meningkatkan tingkat kesuksesan implementasi strategi dari suatu organisasi. SPK dimaksudkan untuk menyampaikan kebutuhan dari stakeholder yang berbeda-beda terhadap organisasi dengan cara membuat sistem penilaian yang strategis dan komprehensif.
Dari ringkasan beberapa jurnal berikut akan dibahas mengenai bagaimana sistem penilaian kinerja mempengaruhi keputusan dari organisasi. Pembahasan jurnal meliputi sistem penilaian kinerja dalam relasi hirarki antara perusahaan dan anak perusahaan, perusahaan dan perusahaan lain dalam melakukan proses bisnis, serta perannya dalam perusahaan dengan budaya yang berbeda-beda.
Influencing Foreign Subsidiary Decisions Through Headquarter Performance Measurement Systems
Matthias D. Mahlendorf, Jochen Rehring, Utz Schäffer, Elmar Wyszomirski

Tujuan : Menyelidiki kemampuan sistem penilaian kinerja yang dilaksanakan oleh kantor pusat kepada anak perusahaan asing untuk mempengaruhi keputusan yang dibuat oleh anak perusahaan. Hal ini penting karena sistem penilaian kinerja adalah mekanisme kontrol yang penting dalam hubungan antara kantor pusat dan anak perusahaan dalam perusahaan multinasional.

Teori : Sistem penilaian kinerja dalam relasi perusahaan pusat dan anak perusahaan.

Hipotesis : Manajemen kompensasi pada sistem penilaian kinerja yang dimiliki perusahaan pusat, formalisasi, tingkat reaktivitas sistem penilaian kinerja perusahaan pusat dan tingkat komprehensif sistem penilaian kinerja perusahaan pusat terkait secara positif dengan pengaruh sistem kinerja perusahaan pusat kepada pengambilan keputusan pada anak perusahaan.

Metode : Data survei berbasis dari anak perusahaan multinasional Cina. Mereka mengembangkan beberapa hipotesis yang diuji pada sampel dari 148 anak perusahaan dengan menggunakan analisis regresi berganda.

Alat Uji Statistik : Analisa regresi berganda.

Temuan : Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pengaruh kantor pusat yang dirancang dengan sistem penilaian kinerja pada keputusan anak perusahaan lebih tinggi ketika kompensasi manajemen anak perusahaan terkait dengan SPK, ketika kendali formal tambahan diberlakukan, saat sistem penilaian kinerja dipengaruhi oleh peristiwa eksternal, saat sistem penilaian kinerja yang komprehensif, dan ketika anak perusahaan tertanam ke dalam lingkungan bisnis lokal. Ditemukan juga pengaruh interaksi negatif antara sistem penilaian kinerja komprehensif dan sejauh mana sistem penilaian kinerja dipengaruhi oleh peristiwa eksternal pada keputusan yang dipengatuhi oleh sistem penilaian kinerja.

Kesimpulan : Pengaruh dari sistem penilaian kinerja perusahaan pusat terhadap pengambilan keputusan pada anak perusahaan secara keseluruhan berhasil dibuktikan, akan tetapi beberapa limitasi dari penelitian ini adalah budaya anak perusahaan tempat pengambilan data survei. Dari hasil penelitian, didapatkan bahwa sistem penilaian kinerja perusahaan pusat adalah mekanisme kontrol yang penting dari perusahaan global modern karena memberi jalan kepada perusahaan pusat untuk melakukan kontrol terhadap anak perusahaan ketika posisi dari anak perusahaan tersebut sulit untuk di monitor. Sistem penilaian kinerja perusahaan pusat dapat mengendalikan keputusan yang diambil oleh anak perusahaan ketika menghadapi persaingan dan tingkat reaktifitas yang tinggi dari sistem penilaian kinerja perusahaan pusat ternyata memberikan kesulitan pada pengambilan keputusan dari anak perusahaan.
Performance Management Practices in Public Sector Organizations: Impact on Performance
Frank H.M. Verbeeten

Tujuan : Menyelidiki praktek manajemen kinerja mempengaruhi kinerja dari organisasi sektor publik.

Teori : Sistem Kontrol Manajemen pada sektor publik, Sistem penilaian kinerja, Teori Goal dan Agency.

Hipotesis : Adanya relasi positif antara gol yang jelas dan terukur dan insentif terhadap kuantitas kinerja.
Tidak ada-nya relasi antara gol yang jelas dan terukur dan insentif terhadap kualitas kinerja.

Metode : Studi ini membedakan antara kinerja kuantitatif (efisiensi, jumlah yang diproduksi) dan kinerja kualitatif (akurasi, kualitas, inovasi dan semangat kerja karyawan) dan menggunakan data survei dari 93 organisasi sektor publik di Belanda.

Alat Uji Statistik : Analisa Regresi

Temuan : Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa definisi tujuan yang jelas dan terukur secara positif terkait dengan kuantitas kinerja maupun kualitas kinerja. Selain itu, penggunaan insentif secara positif terkait dengan kuantitas kinerja namun tidak terkait dengan kualitas dari kinerja. Akhirnya, efek dari praktek manajemen kinerja dalam organisasi sektor publik dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor institusional. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa efek perilaku praktek manajemen kinerja adalah sama pentingnya dengan dampak ekonomi di organisasi sektor publik. Kesimpulan : Hasil studi menunjukkan bahwa organisasi sektor publik menghadapi tantangan dalam mencapai tujuan kuantitatif (yaitu tujuan kinerja jangka pendek seperti efisiensi dan kuantitas yang dihasilkan) dan tujuan kualitas (yaitu tujuan kinerja jangka panjang atau strategis seperti kualitas / akurasi, inovasi, dan semangat kerja karyawan). Tujuan kualitas tidak mungkin dicapai dengan memperkenalkan pengukuran kinerja dan sistem evaluasi, namun tampaknya dicapai dengan memberikan misi inspirasi dan / atau tujuan. Perusahaan harus dapat menciptakan strategi yang menjaga keseimbangan antara kinerja kuantitatif dan kinerja kualitatif. Pertama, perusahaan harus dapat menggunakan berbagai ukuran kinerja untuk semua tugas yang dilakukan. Selain itu perlindungan yang memadai terhadap indikator kualitas perlu dikembangkan. Kedua, sumber eksternal (seperti stakeholders, para ahli eksternal dan / atau klien panel) dapat digunakan untuk memberikan informasi tentang "ukuran kinerja yang memadai" yang harus disertakan dalam sistem penilaian kinerja, serta memberikan informasi tentang bagaimana mereka melihat "soft aspek kinerja". Sebaiknya manajemen kinerja menjadi alat petunjuk arah yang mengendalikan para karyawan agar memiliki rasa kepemilikian terhadap perusahaan dan menghasilkan kualitas kinerja terbaik.
An Empirical Analysis of the Association between the Organizational Culture and Performance Measurement Systems in the Turkish Manufacturing Sector
Melek Eker, Semih Eker

Tujuan : Melakukan investigasi terhadap perubahan dalam tujuan dan langkah-langkah dari Sistem Penilaian Kinerja (SPK) yang digunakan dalam budaya organisasi yang berbeda oleh para manajer..

Teori : Sistem penilaian kinerja finansial dan non-finansial.

Hipotesis : Perusahaan dengan budaya yang fleksibel memiliki kecenderungan menggunakan SPK non-finansial dan menggunakan SPK dalam tujuan untuk pengambilan keputusan strategis dan pemusatan perhatian.
Perusahaan dengan budaya pengendalian cenderung menggunakan SPK finansial dan menggunakan SPK dalam tujuan untuk pemantauan dan legitimasi.

Metode : Data diperoleh dengan melakukan survey pada 112 perusahaan manufaktur dari berbagai jenis industri di Turki.

Alat Uji Statistik : Analisa Regresi Logistik.

Temuan : Perusahaan yang memiliki budaya yang fleksibel cenderung menggunakan sistem penilaian kinerja non-finansial dan menggunakan SPK untuk tujuan yang berkaitan dengan pengambilan keputusan strategis. Sedangkan perusahaan dengan budaya kontrol cenderung menggunakan SPK untuk tujuan yang berhubungan dengan pemantauan dan legitimasi.. Kesimpulan : Sistem Penilaian Kinerja (SPK) dalam hubungannya dengan finansial, dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu finansial dan non-finansial. SPK finansial dan SPK non-finansial memberi efek yang berbeda kepada perusahaan yang mempunyai jenis budaya yang berbeda. Tujuan penggunaan SPK pada setiap perusahaan pun berbeda-beda. Perusahaan dengan budaya tertentu menggunakan SPK hanya untuk pemantauan kinerja, dan ada lagi SPK digunakan sebagai salah satu alat bantu dalam pengambilan keputusan. Secara umum, hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa tidak mungkin untuk mendapatkan hasil yang sama dalam organisasi dengan menggunakan tujuan dan langkah-langkah dari SPK. Salah satu faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan SPK adalah budaya yang berbeda-beda. Budaya yang berbeda membutuhkan penerapan SPK yang berbeda pula. Maka dari itu manajer harus dapat menentukan budaya dari organisasi dan rancangan SPK yang sesuai, karena apabila ada ketidaksesuaian antara SPK dan budaya organisasi, sistem yang dirancang tidak bisa membantu perusahaan untuk mencapai kesuksesan.
The Effectiveness of Flexible Manufacturing Strategies: The Mediating Role of Performance Measurement Systems
Therese A. Joiner, X. Sarah Yang Spencer, Suzanne Salmon

Tujuan : Di latar belakangi dari keharusan kustomisasi yang dianut oleh perusahaan-perusahaan manufaktur di negara-negara industri dan bersamaan dengan panggilan terhadap kebutuhan sistem penilaian kinerja yang lebih seimbang. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguji peran mediasi dari kedua ukuran kinerja non-keuangan dan keuangan dalam hubungan antara perusahaan strategis dengan orientasi manufaktur fleksibel dan kinerja organisasi.

Teori : Sistem Penilaian Kinerja, Perencanaan Strategis.

Hipotesis : Ada hubungan positif antara penekanan strategis suatu perusahaan pada manufaktur fleksibel dan sejauh mana penggunaan ukuran kinerja keuangan dan non-keuangan.
Ada hubungan positif langsung antara tingkat penggunaan ukuran kinerja keuangan dan non-keuangan pada perusahaan dengan kinerja keuangan dan non-keuangan dari organisasi.

Metode : Analisa diadopsi dari data kuesioner dari 84 perusahaan manufaktur di Australia.

Alat Uji Statistik : Analisa regresi.

Temuan : Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa, pertama, perusahaan menekankan strategi manufaktur fleksibel menggunakan pengukuran kinerja non-keuangan serta kinerja keuangan, kedua, pengukuran kinerja berhubungan dengan tingkat kinerja organisasi yang lebih tinggi, dan ketiga, ada hubungan positif antara penekanan strategis suatu perusahaan pada tingkat fleksibilitas manufaktur dan kinerja organisasi melalui pengukuran kinerja non-keuangan dan keuangan. Kesimpulan : Setelah pemeriksaan lebih dekat tentang peran mediasi dari ukuran kinerja non-keuangan dan keuangan, menarik untuk dicatat bahwa ada hubungan langsung antara strategi manufaktur fleksibel dan kinerja non-keuangan dari organisasi. Maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa ukuran kinerja keuangan menjadi penting dalam hubungan antara fokus strategis manufaktur fleksibel dan kinerja keuangan dari organisasi. Dinyatakan secara berbeda, penekanan strategis fleksibilitas manufaktur tidak dengan sendirinya, terkait dengan kinerja keuangan yang tinggi dari organisasi, kinerja keuangan hanya dipengaruhi melalui desain yang tepat dan penggunaan sistem penilaian kinerja keuangan. Temuan ini menambah pengetahuan yang ada tentang penggunaan sistem penilaian kinerja dan menekankan pentingnya merancang sistem penilaian kinerja yang lebih luas untuk mencakup pengukuran keuangan dan non-keuangan. Sedangkan pengukuran kinerja instrumen yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini tidak sama dengan penggunaan sistem "seimbang" pengukuran kinerja, hasil yang menunjukkan bahwa perusahaan mengadopsi strategi fleksibilitas yang memperoleh manfaat dari sistem penilaian kinerja yang lebih komprehensif.
The Indirect Effects of PMS Design on Malaysian Service Firms' Characteristics and Performance
Amizawati Mohd Amir

Tujuan : Tujuan dari tulisan ini adalah untuk mendapatkan pemahaman yang lebih mengenai kesesuaian antara karakteristik organisasi dan desain sistem penilaian kinerja dengan tingkat kinerja organisasi. Studi ini menyajikan bukti atribut sistem penilaian kinerja dan digunakan sebagai intervensi variabel pada hubungan antara karakteristik layanan perusahaan dan kinerja di Malaysia.

Teori : Strategi Bisnis dan sistem penilaian kinerja.

Hipotesis : Hubungan dengan penekanan pada sistem penilaian kinerja yang kontemporer terdapat hipotesis : Relasi positif tidak langsung antara strategi diferensiasi dan kinerja, relasi negatif tidak langsung antara strategi biaya rendah dan kinerja, dan relasi positif tidak langsung antara persaingan dan kinerja.
Hubungan dengan penekanan pada sistem penilaian kinerja yang interaktif terdapat hipotesis : Relasi positif tidak langsung antara strategi diferensiasi dan kinerja, relasi negatif tidak langsung antara strategi biaya rendah dan kinerja, dan relasi positif tidak langsung antara persaingan dan kinerja.

Metode : Seluruh permasalahan tersebut diuji dengan menggunakan pendekatan metode campuran dengan kuesioner survei dan serangkaian wawancara pasca-survei. Penekanan yang kuat diberikan pada pendekatan kuantitatif sebagai tujuan untuk mengembangkan temuan umum sistem penilaian kinerja di sektor jasa.

Alat Uji Statistik : Analisa Regresi Ganda

Temuan : Atribut dan penggunaan sistem penilaian kinerja memiliki efek tidak langsung terhadap hubungan antara strategi diferensiasi, daya saing dan kinerja lingkungan organisasi untuk kedua layanan profesional dan massal. Selain itu penafsiran wawancara menggarisbawahi peran dari masing-masing elemen desain dalam membangun sistem penilaian kinerja yang efektif. Kesimpulan : Selain strategi dan intensitas persaingan, ada faktor manajemen puncak yang menjadi katalis dalam memfasilitasi pengembangan dan penerimaan sistem penilaian kinerja sebagai alat dari sistem kontrol manajemen. Karena top manajemen adalah orang-orang yang dapat mengambil keputusan mengenai strategi dan persaingan. Akan tetapi pada saat yang bersamaan, penerimaan dan komitmen dari karyawan sangat penting untuk menentukan keberhasilan sistem penilaian kinerja. Maka dapat disimpulkan efek dari desain sistem penilaian kinerja juga dipengaruhi oleh faktor manusia. Kompatibilitas antara elemen desain, yaitu atribut, gaya penggunaan dan mekanisme pengukuran, sama-sama penting untuk menjamin efektivitas dan efisiensi SPK. Elemen harus mendukung dan saling melengkapi untuk memberikan informasi yang dapat dipercaya dan tepat untuk pengendalian manajemen dan pengambilan keputusan.
Penutup

Sistem Penilaian kinerja(SPK) digunakan dalam dalam perusahaan atau organisasi untuk tujuan yang berbeda-beda. Dalam hubungan antar perusahaan utama dengan anak perusahaan, ketika dilihat dari sisi SPK perusahaan utama ternyata mempengaruhi pengambilan keputusan dari anak perusahaan, termasuk melakukan pengendalian oleh perusahaan utama terhadap keputusan dari anak perusahaan. Diketahui juga dari perusahaan sektor publik, SPK digunakan sebagai petunjuk untuk mencapai tujuan kualitatif dan kuantitatif, bukan sebagai jawaban.
Dalam SPK juga ada faktor penilaian eksternal yang dijadikan sebagai informasi untuk peningkatan. Selain faktor eksternal, ada juga faktor manusia yang mempengaruhi sistem penilaian kinerja. Faktor manusia ini sangat berpengaruh karena manusialah yang merancang dan melaksanakan implementasi konkrit dari suatu sistem manajemen. Kebutuhan akan fleksibilitas dari suatu implementasi strategi didapatkan dari SPK yang komprehensif. Kemudian faktor budaya dari perusahaan pun mempengaruhi tujuan dan efektifitas penerapan SPK pada suatu organisasi. Dari faktor lingkungan bisnis, penerapan SPK yang terlalu fleksibel dengan perubahan lingkungan akan menyebabkan para pelaku bisnis kesulitan dalam melakukan implementasi kendali manajemen.
Setelah lima jurnal mengenai sistem penilaian kinerja dibahas, dapat dikatakan sistem penilaian kinerja ini memberikan pengaruh positif yang sangat penting terhadap pengambilan keputusan strategis untuk menghadapi persaingan, untuk memberikan pengaruh kepada stakeholder atau faktor eksternal perusahaan. Sistem penilaian kinerja tidak harus terlalu fleksibel dengan perubahan lingkungan bisnis, tetapi diperlukan sistem penilaian kinerja yang komprehensif.

Referensi

1. Amir, A.M. 2011.The Indirect Effects of PMS Design on Malaysian Service Firms Characteristics and Performance. Asian Review of Accounting, Vol. 19(hlm. 31 – 49). 2. Eker, M., & Eker, S.. 2009. An Empirical Analysis of the Association between the Organizational Culture and Performance Measurement Systems in the Turkish Manufacturing Sector. Jurnal of Economic and Social Research, Vol. 11(hlm. 43 – 76). 3. Joiner, T.A., Spencer, X.S.Y., & Salmon, S.. 2009. The Effectiveness of Flexible Manufacturing Strategies: The Mediating Role of Performance Measurement Systems. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, Vol. 58(hlm. 119 – 135). 4. Mahlendorf, M.D., Rehring J., Schäffer, U., & Wyszomirski, E.. 2012. Influencing Foreign Subsidiary Decisions Through Headquarter Performance Measurement Systems. Management Decision, Vol. 50(hlm. 688 – 717). 5. Verbeeten, F.H.M.. 2008. Performance Management Practices in Public Sector Organizations: Impact on Performance. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Vol. 21(hlm. 427 – 454).

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