...Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes cell Cell theory states that all organisms are made of one or more cells. There are two basis types of cell: prokaryotes, which do not contain a nucleus, and eukaryotes, which have a true nucleus. The difference between the structure and functioning of prokaryotes and eukaryotes is so great that it is considered, by some, to be the most important distinction among groups of organisms. However, if we are to believe the endosymbiosis theory and that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes there must also be some fundamental similarities. A significant similarity is the fact that both prokaryotes and eukaryotes use the same genetic material (DNA) and genetic code to store and translate genetic information. But this genetic information is arranged very differently within the two types of cell. In eukaryotes the DNA is packed into chromatins and sequestered within a double membrane bound organelle, known as the nucleus, and is easily seen using a microscope. On the other hand, prokaryotes lack this distinct nucleus and nucleur membrane but instead have a nucleoid, which is an irregularly shaped region within the cell where the genetic information is localised in the form of a, usually circular, double strand of DNA. Prokaryotes and some eukaryotes are also known to have additional small satellite structures of DNA called plasmids. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes also contain ribosomes which are the organelles responsible for accurately translating this...
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...the process. Endosymbiotic theory proposes that these organelles were once prokaryotic cells, living inside larger host cells. The prokaryotes may initially have been parasites or even an intended meal for the larger cell, somehow escaping digestion. Whatever the cause of their initial internment, these prokaryotes might soon have become willing prisoners to a grateful warden. The prisoner prokaryotes might have provided crucial nutrients (in the case of the primitive chloroplast) or helped to exploit oxygen for extracting energy (in the case of the primitive mitochondrion). The prokaryotes, in turn, would have received protection and a steady environment in which to live. Multiple lines of evidence support the endosymbiotic theory. Endosymbiosis is observed elsewhere in biology. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have intriguing similarities in structure, reproduction, biochemistry, and genetic makeup to certain prokaryotes. The plain fact that mitochondria and chloroplasts have any genetic information of their own argues in favour of the theory. Because virtually all eukaryotes have some sort of mitochondria, while only photosynthetic eukaryotes have chloroplasts, it has been proposed that endosymbiosis occurred twice, in series. First, an aerobic (oxygen-using) heterotrophic prokaryote was taken in by a larger host cell. In time, the prokaryote co-evolved with the host, eventually becoming something like a mitochondrion. Next, a...
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...interact with the environment, the way they interact wit other organisms, and their uses in industry and agriculture. -Some professions of microbiology are: Geomicrobiologist (earth), marine microbiologist, medical technologist (pathogenic microbes and diseases), nurse epidemiologist and astrobiologist. 1.2 Prokaryotic- simple cells that lack a nucleus (referring it as karyon) found 3.5 billion years ago. Eukaryotes- more complex, contain a nucleus and other complex internal structures found 1.8 billion years ago. (the early eukaryotes probably similar to algae and protozoa, started lines of evolution that eventually gave rise to fungi, plants and multicellular animas such as worms and insects) organelles= are structure in cells that are bound by one or more membranes. ex. mitochondria. All prokaryotes are microorganisms and include the bacteria and archaeons. Only some eukaryotes are microorganisms primarily: algae, protozoa, and yeasts (types of fungi) and certain animals such as arthropods and worms. Evolution timeline picture: Earth, prokaryotes, eukaryotes, reptiles, cockroaches, mammals and then humans. -Microbial dimensions: nanometers, micrometers and millimeters. smallest are viruses measuring around 10nm and not much bigger...
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...Abstract Understanding evolution helps us solve biological problems that impact our lives. There are excellent examples of this in the field of medicine. To stay one step ahead of pathogenic diseases, researchers must understand the evolutionary patterns of disease-causing organisms. To control hereditary diseases in people, researchers study the evolutionary histories of the disease-causing genes. In these ways, knowledge of evolution can improve the quality of human life. Evolution played an important role not only for the present day humans but all living things today. As you all know, we didn’t just evolve out of nothing, we all have an ancestor whose ancestor’s ancestor is our ancestor and so on. When we can’t go back any further because of the given facts, we know that was every organism’s common ancestor. To understand the importance of evolution, we must gather some understanding of the meaning of evolution. Here is biological evolution defined by one of the most respected evolutionary biologists, Douglas Futuyma. "In the broadest sense, evolution is merely change, and so is all-pervasive; galaxies, languages, and political systems all evolve. Biological evolution ... is change in the properties of populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual. The ontogeny of an individual is not considered evolution; individual organisms do not evolve. The changes in populations that are considered evolutionary are those that are inheritable via the...
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...BIOLOGY 102: General Biology Investigation 3 Cell Structure and Cell Membranes Part 1 - Cells [20 points] Specimen Number | Organism | Eukaryote or Prokaryote | Where Organism is Found | How Organism Obtains Nutrients | Image 9 | Spirogyra | Eukaryote | Freshwater, free-floating | Autotrophy | Image 7 | Diatom | Prokaryote | Oceans, freshwater, soils and damp places | Heterotrophy | Image 6 | Paramecium | Eukaryote | Freshwater, brackish and marine environments, often very abundant in stagnant basins and ponds | Heterotrophy | Image 2 | Lactobacillus | Prokaryote | Vagina and the gastrointestinal tract | Heterotrophy | Image 10 | Euglena | Eukaryote | Fresh and salt waters, abundant in quiet inland waters | Both (Mixotrophy) | Image 11 | Trypanosoma | Eukaryote | Generally found in intestine, but normally occupy the bloodstream or an intracellular environment | Heterotrophy | Image 13 | Volvox | Eukaryote | Ponds and ditches | Autotrophy | Image 4 | Radiolaria | Eukaryote | Found as zooplankton throughout the ocean and their skeletal remains | Heterotrophy | Image 1 | Amoeba | Eukaryote | Stagnant water | Heterotrophy | Image 12 | Plant cells with nucleus (chloroplasts absent) | Eukaryote | Plants | Autotrophy | List two similarities between plant cells and animal cells 1. Both plant and animal cells have a nucleus. 2. Both plant and animal cells have ribosomes, mitochondria, and a Golgi apparatus. List two differences...
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...Microbiology Mid Term Review What contribution did these dudes make to science and what type of experiments were involved in the discoveries they made? Louis Pasteur- Heat pasteurization- 1st vaccine for rabies. Found alcohol only produced in wine if yeast was present. “Swan necked” flasks experiment for spontaneous generation. Robert Koch- Studied anthrax, Koch’s postulates (germ theory) studied and awarded for TB research. Anton van Leewenhoek- Made the 1st lens to observe living microorganisms. The lens magnified up to 300x and were free of distortion. Edward Jenner- Studied small pox. Came up with the first vaccine for smallpox. Alexander Fleming- Discovered lysozyme (an enzyme) was found in tears, saliva, and sweat could kill bacteria. What issues and types of instruments are involved in visualizing bacteria and viruses with a compound light microscope? Reflection- transmission-absorption with florescence-refraction. Condenser-is a lens that serves to concentrate light from the illumination source that is in turn focused through the object and magnified by the objective lens. iris diaphragm-regulates the amount of light on the specimen. objective lenses- magnifies ranges from 10x to 40x, ocular lenses. stage- supports the slide for viewing. focusing knobs-moves the stage up and down for focusing. total magnification- take the power of the objective (4X, 10X, 40x) and multiply by the power of the eyepiece, usually 10X. What are the differences...
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...The nucleus is an area inside the cell that contains the nucleic acids, protecting them by separating the genetic code from the cytoplasm, and keeps the cytoplasmic activity from interfering with any genetic material. Inside of the nucleus, proteins work together to copy parts of the deoxyribonucleic acids to the ribonucleic acids. This process of adding some of the DNA to the RNA is called transcription (Inside a Cell). The job of the nucleus is to coordinate all the activity of the cell, including growth, reproduction, protein production, and metabolization. Basically, the nucleus is the command center for all of the cell’s functions. Only advanced cells, which are scientifically named eukaryotes have nuclei. Unicellular prokaryotes don’t have a nucleus. Eukaryotes usually only have one nucleus, but slime molds and some types of algae can have multiple. The nucleus typically takes up a full tenth of the cell, making it one of the biggest organelles inside the cell. The average nucleus contains about 6 feet of DNA. That tiny sphere, only nanometers across, contains 6 feet of DNA. To add to that, DNA won’t properly function if it’s wound up into a tiny ball like string. It has to be combined with proteins and meticulously organized into the dense form of chromatin (The Cell Nucleus). To roll up those facts into a nice concluding wrap, I’ll just tell you this....
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...For L18: 8.19, 21.4, 11.1 , 6.13, 10.9, 11.3, 3.16 For L19: 11.3, 8.9, 8.1, 8.2, 4.3 For L20: 8.8, 8.3, 8.4, 8.7 For L22: 8.7, 8.8 and 11.17 For L23: 4.16, 8.8, 10.4, 11.10, 11.17, 11.18 For L24: 27.1, 27.2, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.12 For L25: 8.1, 8.11, 8.12, 8.13 For L26: 8.12, 8.13, 8.14, 8.15 and 27.3 For L27: 8.12, 8.13, 8.15 and 27.3 For L28: 27.3, 27.4, 27.5, 27.9, and 27.15 For L29: 27.7, 27.8, 27.15, 27.16 and 27.17 Exam 3 (11/9/15) Supplemental Reading: 26.4 (Hypothalamus and Pituitary glands) 27.6 (Menstrual cycle) For each question below you need to be able to write a paragraph answer that is clear, accurate and detailed and in many cases draw, label and explain an answer with detail, clarity and accuracy, or create a detailed accurate table. Have someone who will give you honest feedback read your paragraphs and listen to your explanations for clarity, especially those that you are having trouble with. Check your notes and book for accuracy, or have someone who knows confirm you are accurate. To confirm you have enough detail, make sure you use all of the terms that follow each question in your paragraph and in your drawing and explanation. If you are missing or incorrectly use one term in ten that is a grade of A-, two terms in ten is a B, three terms in ten is a C, and if you miss or incorrectly use more than four terms in ten you are headed for failing the exam and need to study more. Before the exam you need to be able to...
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...Chapter 17 Study Guide We will focus on only a few key concepts from this chapter. You should already be familiar with many of these concepts from other courses. 1. It is believed that the first organisms appeared on Earth around 3.8 billion years ago. What evidence do each of the following for this occurrence? • Stromatolites -the earliest forms of lfe for which we have clear fossil evidence -a bulbous mass of sedimentary layers of limestone accreted by microbes over years -within the outer layers, microbes grow as a microbial mat (sort of like a biofilm) -outer laters of mat contain oxygenic phototrips that exude bubbles of oxygen -a few mm below surface, red light supports bacteria photolyzing H2S to sulfate which is then reduced by lowe layers of sulface reducing bacteria -fossils formed as layers of phototropic microbial communities grew and died their form filled in by calcium carbonate or silica -accepted to date as eatly as 3.4 Gyr ago -too deformed to reveal the detailed structure of cells and the biological origin of such fossils is questioned by some researchers -mainly in isolated pools whose high salt concentration exclude predators • Microfossils -the most convincing evidence for ealy microbial life is the visua appearance of microfossils which are microscopic fossils in which minerals have precipitated and filled in the form of ancient microbial cells -dated bythe age of the rock formation in which they are found, which is based...
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...introduces the topics of microscopy and cell fractionation, followed by a review of the cell and the major organelles and structures of eukaryotic cells. A challenge with this chapter is to keep this data from simply being a list of parts. In addition to the structure and function of individual organelles, questions probe student understanding of the cell as a dynamic, interconnected system: the flow of membrane and proteins in the endomembrane system to the plasma membrane; the flow of information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm; and the connection between the cytoskeleton, the plasma membrane, and the extracellular matrix. An evolutionary perspective goes beyond structural distinctions between prokaryotes and eukaryotes to examine theories concerning the evolutionary origins of eukaryotes and key eukaryotic cell structures. Multiple-Choice Questions 1) When biologists wish to study the internal ultrastructure of cells, they can achieve the finest resolution by using A) a phase-contrast light microscope. B) a scanning electron microscope. C) a transmission electronic microscope. D) a confocal fluorescence microscope. E) a super-resolution fluorescence microscope. Answer: C Topic: Concept 6.1 Skill: Knowledge/Comprehension 2) The advantage of light microscopy over electron microscopy is that A) light microscopy provides for higher magnification than electron microscopy. B) light microscopy provides for higher resolving power than electron microscopy. C) light...
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...Biology 119, Spring 2015 Review sheet for Exam 1 The exam is worth 100 points total. It will consist of approximately 47 multiple-choice questions worth 2 point each and 3-4 short essay questions. Bring a scantron and pencil to the exam. The best way to study is to review the posted lecture notes. I suggest printing of a blank copy and filling them in referring to your book and notes as little as possible. Continue this process until you can fill them in without assistance. Exam 1 will cover chapters 1-3 and 6. 1. How long have microbes been on the planet? How has this affected the evolution of more complex species? a. Microorganisms are the foundation for all life on earth b. They have existed on this planet for about 3.5 billion years c. Over time plants, animals, and modern microorganisms evolved from them 2. Describe some of the negative impacts of microbes. d. Disease epidemics- an infectious disease that affects large numbers of people in a given area e. Chronic disease caused by bacteria i. Many disease once thought caused by environmental stressors actually caused by bacteria 1. Example: gastric ulcers a. Causative agent – Helicobacter pylori f. Examples: ii. Black Plague (Yersinia pestis bacterium)- killed 25 million Europeans between 1346-1350 iii. Influenza 1918-1919 killed more than all the wars combined iv. Cholera-vibrio cholerae ...
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...Gene Recognition A project report submitted to M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Computer Science & Engineering Submitted by Mudra Hegde 1MS07CS052 Nakul G V 1MS07CS053 Under the guidance of Veena G S Assistant Professor Computer Science and Engineering M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology [pic] DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING M.S.RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to VTU) BANGALORE-560054 www.msrit.edu May 2011 Gene Recognition A project report submitted to M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Computer Science & Engineering Submitted by Mudra Hegde 1MS07CS052 Nakul G V 1MS07CS053 Under the guidance of Veena G S Assistant Professor Computer Science and Engineering M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology [pic] DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING M. S. RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to VTU) BANGALORE-560054 www.msrit.edu May 2011 Department of Computer Science...
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...Biology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Biology (disambiguation). Biology deals with the study of the many varieties of living organisms. Clockwise from top left: Salmonella typhimurium, Phascolarctos cinereus, Athyrium filix-femina, Amanita muscaria, Agalychnis callidryas, and Brachypelma smithi Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.[1] Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Among the most important topics are five unifying principles that can be said to be the fundamental axioms of modern biology:[2] 1. Cells are the basic unit of life 2. New species and inherited traits are the product of evolution 3. Genes are the basic unit of heredity 4. An organism regulates its internal environment to maintain a stable and constant condition 5. Living organisms consume and transform energy. Subdisciplines of biology are recognized on the basis of the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them: biochemistry examines the rudimentary chemistry of life; molecular biology studies the complex interactions of systems of biological molecules; cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of the tissues, organs, and organ systems of an organism; and ecology...
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...Derrick Warren Biology 108 November 8, 2015 BIOL 108 Worksheet 2 1. Define a cell. 2. Identify (list) the two basic types of cells. 3. Would you find proteins inside cells or cells inside proteins? (choose one answer) 4. What two things make osmosis a special type of diffusion? 5. What is a selectively permeable membrane? (Also called a semi-permeable membrane.) 6. Explain what happens to a cell when placed in isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. 7. Explain the basic organization (main components) of a plasma membrane. Include at least 4 distinct parts. 8. Identify (a) a similarity and (b) a difference between facilitated transport and active transport; do not state they both move substances across membranes. 9. What is an organelle? Which organelle is a processing, packaging and shipping center for proteins and lipids? 10. Where would you find the nucleolus? What happens there? 11. What is the role of the ribosome? 12. Which organelle digests macromolecules, worn out cell parts, debris and disease-causing microbes? 13. What structures are associated with cell movement? 14. What is the most significant difference in structure between rough and smooth ER? What type of macromolecule do each produce? 15. Which organelle makes ATP? 16. What is the most important product of cellular respiration? 17. List the three major steps in cellular respiration. (3 pts) 18. How does the body use the oxygen that we breathe? In other words, what is oxygen's final...
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...population that can breed under natural conditions and produce fertile offspring Hybridization- crossbreeding between species (rare) (ex, liger, mule) Types of Biodiversity * genetic diversity: sexual reproduction cases unique inherited combinations of traits * ecosystem diversity: variety of organisms and their environment * diversity of interactions: interdependence of species = stability * diversity of habitats: structural diversity increases biodiversity Loss of biodiversity -affects food -medicine -economics -carbon cycle ______________________________________________________________________________ Taxonomy (to arrange) - the science of identifying, classifying, and naming organisms - classification based on similarities in structure and function - classifying helps us find/identify and understand Seven Levels Remember Katy Perry's Cat Ordered Fine Guacamole Sunday King Phillip Came Over From Germany, Stinky 1. Species 2. Genus 3. Family - animals end in "-idae" , plants end in " -aceae" 4. Order 5. Class 6. Phylum 7. Kingdom Classification for humans: Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: sapians Binomial Nomenclature: 1. Genus (capitalized) (italics/underlined) 2. Species (not capitalized)(italics/underlined) Ex; Urses maritimus (polar bear) Dichotomous Key: tree diagram that divides by 2 each time - used to identify organisms Phylogeny:...
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