...Professor MacDougall started the lecture with the discussion of why one studies history, stating disease is a universal experience, and transcend race, gender, and class. She expressed how smallpox is part of the Orthopox family, with a variola major virus which is more deadly than the variola minor virus. There were many attempts at vaccination, once incident where they would extract the puss from one victim, and insert into a healthy person for them to become immune. However, all this would do is spread the disease further. Then Edward Jenner tested his theory of injecting cow pox into a volunteer. This vaccination proved to be effective. In 1948, with the creation of the World Health Organization people believed it was time to eradicate...
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...I. Appendix With the outbreak of globalization, the movement of goods, information, and people has been made fairly easy. Unfortunately, however, the movement of infections and diseases has also been made easy. Due to the fact that our world has become very interconnected, multiple organizations have come about to aid these transfers, be it the transfer of information, or public health. One of these organizations is the World Health Organization, a coordinating authority for health was created in parallel to the United Nations and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. In the 19th Century, there was a massive eruption of diseases, most importantly the cholera epidemic. All around Europe, countries were pushing towards an international health convention to try to address the issues at hand, and while many conventions were finally held, there needed to be something more global to set things right. After the First World War plagued the world, the League of Nations came about and created several agencies to help in aiding the world. One of those agencies was the League of Nations Health Organization. The Health Organization was primarily made to control diseases and try to prevent them. However, their successes came to a halt when the second World War broke out. In 1945, when the war had already ended, the United Nations came about and replaced the former League of Nations. The 61 members of the United Nations all signed the constitution of the World Health Organization in 1946...
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...patients—slowly dying in the hospital cots—are victims of fatal disease called smallpox. Throughout history, smallpox,...
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...Karim Hall Abstract The World Health Organization also known by its abbreviation (WHO) it is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerns itself with international public health. The World Health Organization being a international organization in over 61 different countries that the United Nations help maintain international peace which is one the great and overachieving organizations in the world today. To talk about this organization you have to an understanding in united health care. With this type of organizations branches in so many countries it comes to a key factor in public health in countries that fall under the United Nations constitution. For an organization to hold such a leading role in these countries they hold ties with many other organizations such as United Nations Development Group and the League of Nations. World Health Organization The World Health Organization was first established on April 7th 1948, with its main headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Geneva is a very global city, a financial center, and worldwide center for diplomacy due to the account of many numerous international organizations, including the headquarters of many of the agencies of the United Nations and the Red Cross. The United Nations also known as the (UN) was founded in 1945 after World War II came to an end and was created to replace the League of Nations after the League of Nations failed to prevent World War II. (Christian, Tomuschat 1995) It main...
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...doctor holding a syringe and gazing into the distance: Edward Jenner. People felt that vaccines were so absurd and dangerous that they were capable of transmute a human being. Jenner’s cowpox vaccine eventually permitted the elimination of smallpox off the face of the earth. In modern day, this ignorant fear seems rather amusing hence in most parts of the world, we have become accustomed to the method and reason of science. Although we do not possess the fear that a vaccine can turn people into cows, we do possess another fear: the fear of...
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...global awareness of issues and greater access to foreign culture such as movies, music, food, and clothing. Negative implications of globalization include the outsourcing of jobs to countries where labor is cheaper, loss of cultural identities as different cultures mingle, and the spread of disease as people move around the world. Natural ecosystems are affected by globalization due to the introduction of invasive species of plants and animals (Steif, 2010). This paper will discuss the effects of globalization on two cultures, the South American Incas and the Inuit people of the north. The Inca people lived in Peru for over three hundred years. They were a rustic culture that had skills in animal breeding and agriculture (About Peru History, n.d.). They were an extremely religious culture, worshiping many gods, but considering the Sun God to be their main ruler. Incan kings were believed to be descended from the Sun God and were therefore seen as having absolute power. A society ruled by war, the Inca conquered and ruled most of South America for almost one hundred years. The Incas saw themselves...
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...under the skin to trigger a bodily response. This response activates the creation of antibodies against the foreign compounds, which then leads to immunization from the desired disease. Although the modern story of vaccination began with Edward Jenner’s approach of introducing already infected material to a healthy subject to protect against smallpox, the idea dates as far back as 1000 B.C. in China. Before agreeing to the label of vaccination, it was generally termed inoculation. It was Jenner’s 1796 research that became the base for which smallpox ultimately became eradicated in the United States. Today we strive to advance our understanding of vaccinations to build a future free from diseases such as HIV, malaria, dengue, and RSV. Today, the government and its schools hold considerable responsibility in the control of preventable diseases. The initial mandatory vaccination laws were passed by Massachusetts in the early 1850’s. The vaccine law transpired because of the new mandatory school attendance law. It was passed in order to keep the growing number of school students safe from disease, and to halt the advancement of smallpox. Vaccines were never collectively respected though. The CDC (1) states: During the mid-1970s, there was an increased focus on personal health and more people became concerned about vaccine safety. Several lawsuits were filed against vaccine manufacturers and healthcare providers by people who believed they had been injured by the diphtheria...
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...disease. Although we can attribute the eradication and control of many diseases to vaccinations, there are still many Americans who are refusing to vaccinate their children based on their belief in a few unfounded fears. Most of these fears that the anti vaccine community believes are centered around the health risks involved with the practice of vaccinating. The majority of these fears have been disproven through extensive research. With the continued research and innovations of the leading scientists in vaccines, vaccines will become safer and more readily available to people around the world. Vaccinating is the most effective way to keep the public healthy by preventing and eliminating diseases and by preventing future outbreaks. Before the Scientist Edward Jenner introduced vaccines, it was a common to hear about deaths from diseases such as Smallpox, Rubella, Polio, Measles, Tetanus, and Diphtheria. Once these diseases were introduced into a community, they seemed to spread quickly, taking many victims with them. Today, because of the implementation of vaccines, this is a very uncommon occurrence. Hearing about someone being infected with these diseases is rare, and hearing about a death due to these diseases is even more rare. According to the Center for Disease Control, most of these diseases have decreases by ninety-nine percent in the United States, since the vaccine has been introduced to the public. Some of these diseases like Smallpox and Diphtheria have been wiped out...
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...Access to health care varies across countries, groups, and individuals, largely influenced by social and economic conditions as well as the health policies in place. Countries and jurisdictions have different policies and plans in relation to the personal and population-based health care goals within their societies. Health care systems are organizations established to meet the health needs of target populations. Their exact configuration varies from country to country. In some countries and jurisdictions, health care planning is distributed among market participants, whereas in others planning is made more centrally among governments or other coordinating bodies. In all cases, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a robust financing mechanism; a well-trained and adequately-paid workforce; reliable information on which to base decisions and policies; and well maintained facilities and logistics to deliver quality medicines and technologies.[1] Health care can contribute to a significant part of a country's economy. In 2011, the health care industry consumed an average of 9.3 percent of the GDP or US$ 3,322 (PPP-adjusted) per capita across the 34 members of OECD countries. The USA (17.7%, or US$ PPP 8,508), the Netherlands (11.9%, 5,099), France (11.6%, 4,118), Germany (11.3%, 4,495), Canada (11.2%, 5669), and Switzerland (11%, 5,634) were the top spenders, however life expectancy in total population at birth was highest...
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...who seek medical services. One of the most interesting areas of health care for me is the medical research. Health or medical research is a systematic way of evaluating human infections and learning more about human health with the aim of discovering the human health disorders and inventing strategies for the preventing and treating human diseases (Jacobsen, 2012). It also involves the evaluation of safety and effectiveness of particular treatment procedures, validation of a course of treatment and collection of data that will allow future analysis of the study. History of Health Research and the Future Although health research dates back to early 14th century, active scientific approach to health care challenges started with studies about the antibiotics after the Second World War. The discovery of penicillin and vaccines like polio and measles opened studies for several drug and disease which later led to eradication of certain communicable diseases (Jacobsen, 2012). The research has enabled development of over 1,000 drugs which are approved by Food and Drug Administration (Polgar and Thomas, 2008). These drugs have successfully been used treat threatening diseases like leprosy. Furthermore the drugs have been used to manage modern chronic terminal...
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...HISTORY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY * 500 B.C.: In China, the first antibiotic, moldy soybean curds, is put to use to treat boils. * A.D. 100: The first insecticide is produced in China from powdered chrysanthemums. * 1761: English surgeon Edward Jenner pioneers vaccination, inoculating a child with a viral smallpox vaccine. * 1870: Breeders crossbreed cotton, developing hundreds of varieties with superior qualities. * 1870: The first experimental corn hybrid is produced in a laboratory. * 1911: American pathologist Peyton Rous discovers the first cancer-causing virus. * 1928: Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin. * 1933: Hybrid corn is commercialized. * 1942: Penicillin is mass-produced in microbes for the first time. * 1950s: The first synthetic antibiotic is created. * 1951: Artificial insemination of livestock is accomplished using frozen semen. * 1958: DNA is made in a test tube for the first time. * 1978: Recombinant human insulin is produced for the first time. * 1979: Human growth hormone is synthesized for the first time. * 1980: Smallpox is globally eradicated following 20-year mass vaccination effort. * 1980: The U.S. Supreme Court approves the principle of patenting organisms, which allows the Exxon oil company to patent an oil-eating microorganism. * 1981: Scientists at Ohio University produce the first transgenic animals by transferring genes from other animals into mice. * 1982: The...
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...health care (or healthcare) is the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in humans. Health care is delivered by practitioners in medicine, optometry, dentistry, nursing, pharmacy, allied health, and other care providers. It refers to the work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health. Access to health care varies across countries, groups and individuals, largely influenced by social and economic conditions as well as the health policies in place. Countries and jurisdictions have different policies and plans in relation to the personal and population-based health care goals within their societies. Health care systems are organizations established to meet the health needs of target populations. Their exact configuration varies from country to country. In some countries and jurisdictions, health care planning is distributed among market participants, whereas in others planning is made more centrally among governments or other coordinating bodies. In all cases, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning health care system requires a robust financing mechanism; a well-trained and adequately-paid workforce; reliable information on which to base decisions and policies; and well maintained facilities and logistics to deliver quality medicines and technologies.[1] Health care can form a significant part of a country's economy. In 2008, the...
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...The disease preventable vaccines control the spread over 13 diseases and were put in place to allow for reduction, elimination, or eradication of the diseases all together. Many families have never witnessed the diseases that once plagued our country. They were debilitating, but while vaccines cary unavoidable risks they have saved millions of lives over the course of history. While smallpox is the only disease that has been eradicated, many are on the verge of extinction due to global push to have childhood...
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...THE IMPACTS ON ABORIGINAL PEOPLE AFTER THE FIRST FLEET ARRIVED European settlement had a severe and devastating impact on Indigenous people. Their dispossession of the land, exposure to new diseases and involvement in violent conflict, resulted in the death of a vast number of the Aboriginal peoples. The small percentage of Aboriginal people who did not die during these early decades of the colony, were not unaffected. The impact of the white settlers changed their lives, and the lives of future generations, forever. It is believed that at least 750 000 Aboriginal people were living in Australia at the time of Captain Cook's arrival. These people were divided into around 600 different tribes and had hundreds of different languages. Archaeological evidence suggests that the ancestors of the modern Indigenous people of Australia migrated to the continent more than 50 000 years ago. Isolated from external influences, the Aboriginal peoples developed their own way of life, in accordance with their religious and spiritual beliefs of the Dreamtime. Despite knowing of the existence of these peoples, the British considered the Australian continent to be a terra nullius under English law. Terra nullius is a Latin term meaning 'land belonging to no one.' Eight years later, the British went ahead with their plans to establish a penal colony in New South Wales. On 26 January 1788, the First Fleet, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in Sydney Cove. The dispossession of Aboriginal peoples...
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...Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination — History of Vaccines 6/2/15, 11:02 AM History of Vaccines A VACCINE HISTORY PROJECT OF THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF PHILADELPHIA Vaccine Science En español History and Society Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination Debunked: The Polio Vaccine and HIV Link Development of the Immunization Schedule Disease Eradication Ethical Issues and Vaccines History of Anti-vaccination Movements Influenza Pandemics Scientific Method in Vaccine History The History of the Lyme Disease Vaccine U.S. Military and Vaccine History Vaccination Exemptions Vaccine Injury Compensation Programs Vaccine Testing & Vulnerable Human Subjects Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination Public opinions about vaccination include varied and deepseated beliefs, a result of the tension between divergent cultural viewpoints and value systems. Several key cultural perspectives on vaccination stem from (1) individual rights and public health stances toward vaccination, (2) various religious standpoints and vaccine objections, and (3) suspicion and mistrust of vaccines among different U.S. and global cultures and communities. Individual versus Public Health Stances Many countries require their citizens to receive certain immunizations. In the United States, state laws dictate mandatory vaccinations, such as those required for children to enter school.[1] Controversies over the efficacy, safety, and morality of compulsory immunization stem...
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