Free Essay

The Effect of Drug Laws on Crack and Powder Cocaine on African Americans

In: Social Issues

Submitted By bigguy2114
Words 2358
Pages 10
The 1970s saw an increased popularity in cocaine use. Although President Nixon declared a “War on Drugs” in 1972, overall American sentiment toward cocaine in the 1970s was rather indifferent. A 1977 Newsweek article reflected this feeling: “taken in moderation, cocaine probably causes no significant mental or physical damage and a number of researchers have concluded that it can be safer than liquor and cigarettes when used discriminately.” Many viewed the drug as the “marijuana of the 1970s” and relatively few felt that cocaine posed any real threat. Cocaine, an extremely expensive drug at the time, was often associated with ambitious young businessmen and glamorous celebrities, which helped to fuel its popularity, as well as propagate the notion that cocaine was a harmless and enjoyable drug.
Freebase cocaine, the purified form of powder cocaine, was also used throughout the 1970s, although it enjoyed much less popularity. As with powder cocaine, the users of freebase tended to be rich, middle class and white. Freebase was produced by “cooking” powder cocaine in a number of steps, one of which included ether, a highly combustible liquid. The resulting process was extremely pure, but never became particularly widespread due to the tricky process to make it and the danger of fire and explosion.
The simplicity of making crack was a major factor that led to crystallized cocaine becoming more widespread in the 1980s. Powder cocaine use declined in popularity in the middle class in the 1980s. Cocaine supply also increased, reducing the price. Crack provided an intense high very quickly for $5 or $10. For sellers, crack was a lucrative product – easy to make and desired by a huge consumer base for whom powder cocaine had previously been inaccessibly expensive. The association of crack with poor, urban areas where it was sold, and the violence connected with the rapid expansion of the crack market, changed the American perception of cocaine. From 1986 to 1992 there was an explosion of news coverage of crack and fear of an ‘epidemic’ of drug use in the ghettos.
Newsweek, almost ten years after it printed the article claiming cocaine was harmless, published a series of articles about the dangers and extremely addictive qualities of crack and cocaine. Myths of the ‘crack baby’ and the drug crazed, violent ‘crack head’ were born and, despite their limited foundation in reality, they endure as the image of crack users.
By the mid-1980s, Americans no longer tolerated cocaine as a benign, recreational drug. As a result, the Congress passed the Anti-Drug Abuse Acts of 1986 and 1988, setting harsh punishments for those found trafficking in or possession of cocaine or crack. Many states followed suit, setting mandatory minimum sentences for drug violations, which vary in severity depending on the state. Although cocaine use has decreased since the 1980s, crack use is at about its late 1980s level (NSDUH). Popularly, use of the drug is still considered extremely dangerous and socially unacceptable.

The sentencing disparity between convictions for crack cocaine and powder cocaine is discriminatory toward African-Americans. Federal policy is responsible for this disparity, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and Public Law 104-38 (Federal Sentencing Guidelines, Amendment, Disapproval) being the most significant contributors. Differences in the consumption and marketing patterns of crack cocaine and powder cocaine do not justify stiffer penalties. Ironically, the inequitable sentencing of African-Americans has done little to remedy the problem of cocaine trafficking in the United States. Americans believe in a system of justice where all individuals are treated fairly under the law. But mandatory minimum sentencing laws prohibit judges from considering all the facts in a criminal case when determining sentences. The result is one-size-fits-all justice that ignores defendants' life circumstances, criminal history and role in the offense.
The 1986 and 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Acts established excessive mandatory penalties for crack cocaine that were the harshest ever adopted for low-level drug offenses and created drastically different penalty structures for crack cocaine compared to powder cocaine, which are pharmacologically identical substances. The law has diverted precious resources away from prevention and treatment for drug users and devastated communities ripped apart by incarceration.
Today a new consciousness about the unfairness and ineffectiveness of harsh crack cocaine mandatory sentences has emerged among advocates, policymakers, judges and the United States Sentencing Commission.

Government officials justify the disparity in sentencing between powder cocaine and crack cocaine based on the devastating effect that the latter drug exerts at the community level. According to testimony at a recent Congressional hearing, "We the public's perceptions were that the federal government had been too soft on drugs and that swift action was warranted.
Crack houses are established as bases of operation and to facilitate rapid manufacture of the drug. Crack and the Evolution of Anti-Drug Policy. Public Law 1 4-38. In New York City, the base forms of cocaine gained popularity by word-of-mouth: "Local lore, a mixture of fact and fantasy, touted base as being less harmful than the acid form.
Single doses can be sold on the streets for as little as rating 5 to rating 2 .
For example, an ounce of powder cocaine purchased for rating 6 can be converted into crack cocaine and sold for rating 3,. Although it takes a greater quantity of powder to create the same level of high as crack, both drugs induce a similar narcotic effect in the addict.
Works CitedBelenko, Steven.

In the fifth stage, drug usage increases sharply. Approximately 8 percent of those convicted of possession of crack cocaine were black, fewer than 1 percent white, and fewer than 8 percent Hispanic. Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy.
In response to public protest regarding sentencing disparities, Congressional hearings were held to amend federal policy on sentencing for crack cocaine. Crack, which is smoked rather than snorted, produces an intense, short-lived high.
Besides, the use of powder cocaine is more prevalent in society than the use of crack cocaine. Congress 63). The affordability of crack cocaine has made it readily available to low-income segments of society, whereas mostly those who are affluent use powder cocaine.
In enacting such strict legislation, politicians pointed to the threat to America's existence posed by a perceived widespread epidemic of drugs. The public's concerns reached the ears of the politicians, particularly because 1986 was an election year.
Committee on the Judiciary.
The Act emphasized punishment and social control: “Most of the Federal funding authorized under the 1986 act went to law enforcement, prisons, interdiction, and other supply reduction efforts, rather than treatment or prevention" (Belenko 14).
Congress 123-124). The defendant's sentence of a mandatory 13 years in prison was based almost entirely on the quantity of crack cocaine in his possession, whereas, if only the powder drug had been found, he would have been sentenced to only five years. The Rise of Crack and Ice: Experiences in Three Locales. The U. S.
1995.Pope, Victoria. The result was the 1986Anti-Drug Abuse Act. The street-based marketing pattern of crack cocaine dealing marks the most important difference between crack and powder, and this aspect federal policy, though misguided, has sought to rectify. Powder cocaine can be easily converted to crack with the addition of common baking soda, once taken through a heating and cooling process.
Crack can be broken down and packaged into small quantities for distribution. When crack dealing invades a community, a cycle of lawlessness develops. Differences in the consumption and marketing patterns of crack cocaine and powder cocaine do not justify stiffer penalties. Cong. In the first stage, use is confined to small, isolated communities or subcultures.
Conversely, convictions for possession of powder cocaine were almost evenly divided between blacks, whites, and Hispanics (U. S. In the case of crack cocaine trafficking, this is the stage where crack houses began to emerge: "Although it is unclear to what extent the original creation of crack reflected a deliberate marketing ploy by the traffickers to expand cocaine consumption, that was its effect"(Stares 33).
Federal penalties were established for serious crack offenses. As one researcher in Harlem notes, "Cocaine and crack. Their fear was that the crack epidemic would spread to suburban locales: “Perhaps because it was initially confined to minority poor urban areas, tales of violent crackheads caused much more alarm among the middle class"(Belenko 1 ). Federal policy is responsible for this disparity, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and Public Law 1 4-38 (Federal Sentencing Guidelines, Amendment, Disapproval) being the most significant contributors. Congress 129).
The middle class was terrified by the highly addictive qualities attributed to crack.
As one expert witness testified, "These African-Americans are subject to serving long mandatory minimum sentences for simple possession of small amounts of crack cocaine, while those typically Caucasian first time offenders convicted of possession of a much greater quantity of cocaine powder are subject to minimal sentences (even probation)" (U. S. The sentencing disparity between convictions for crack cocaine and powder cocaine is discriminatory toward African-Americans. An example in Congressional testimony is given of a black defendant who submitted to a voluntary police search of his premises and was found in possession of a minuscule amount of crack cocaine and a large amount of powder cocaine.
. Thus, an elaborate underground economy can quickly flourish, bringing in millions of dollars of profit. Second or third offenders could receive sentences just as heavy for possession of as little as three or even one gram of the substance. Government officials justify the disparity in sentencing between powder cocaine and crack cocaine based on the devastating effect that the latter drug exerts at the community level. Dealers can easily recruit "runners," young boys from the local community to market the crack on the streets. In the sixth stage, drug usage becomes an epidemic, severely impacting the resources of public agencies and health systems.
In the fourth stage, drug dealers capitalize on the opportunity to enhance profits. Department of Justice has identified seven distinct stages in the spread of a new drug or drug form. In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio. New York: Cambridge UP, 1995.
Chaiken, Marcia.
Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1993.Bourgois, Philippe.
Critics of the disparity in sentencing between powder cocaine and crack cocaine contend that the substances are basically the same, only indifferent form.
Crack cocaine is purported to be 1 times stronger than powder cocaine. Granted, the street marketing of crack in low-income neighborhoods is associated with violent activity, but sentence adjustments should then be based solely on the use of weapons or violence, rather than determined by the type of drug being trafficking.
During the early 199 s, the African-American community began to feel the negative effects of federal sentencing policy for crack cocaine. Statistics on convictions in federal courts by race became public knowledge, and the disparity was startling. In the seventh stage, the media begins reporting on the drug, alerting the attention of the public.
News reports about crack cocaine did not begin appearing with frequency until late 1985.
"Crack Invades a Small Town.
" U. S. Laws were also enacted for the federal death penalty for drug-related murders.
The enormous profits from crack cocaine prove an irresistible lure for some low-income communities, thus minimizing the effect of stiff penalties for its possession. Some sources listed the percentage of black defendants sentenced for crack cocaine offenses in the federal system as high as 92 percent. Law enforcement officials often find themselves outgunned by the superior firepower of their youthful adversaries. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1996.
U. S. Washington: GPO, 1993, March. Federal Sentencing Guidelines, Amendment, Disapproval. A switch to various types of drugs or preparations characterizes progression to the second stage.
334).
The passage of the 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Act called for even stiffer penalties for drug crimes. House. It was said to induce euphoria without unpleasant side effects" (Chaiken 3). For instance, crack cocaine did not emerge in New York City until the early 198 s, accompanied by the decline of such popular drugs as heroin and PCP.
As Public Law 1 4-38reads, "The sentence imposed for trafficking in a quantity of crack cocaine should generally exceed the sentence imposed for trafficking in a like quantity of powder cocaine" (Federal Sentencing Guidelines 1 9 STAT. A veritable "War on Drugs “was initiated. Retail drug sales easily outcompete other income-generating opportunities, whether legal or illegal" (Bourgois 3). Dealers who are apprehended and imprisoned are quickly replaced with eager young recruits.
Brazen drug trafficking on street corners terrorizes neighborhood residents. 1 4th Cong., 1st sess. Congress, however, chose not to reduce the sentencing disparity, reaffirming its previous stance that differences between crack and powder cocaine justified stiffer penalties.
In the third stage, local opinion favors a particular drug preparation. Although the defendant in this case was a known drug dealer, existing federal policy made no distinction between trafficking and possession.
News & World Report 22 April 1996: 34-44.Stares, Paul. Once a strictly urban phenomenon, crack has now developed into a dilemma for many small towns as well: "A national survey of police chiefs by pollster Peter Hart found that 47 percent of small-town chiefs consider drugs and extremely serious ‘or 'quite serious' problem" (Pope 37). Global Habit.
In low-income communities, crack cocaine use can quickly escalate into epidemic proportions. Also, no evidence in the scientific literature supports the contention that crack cocaine usage is linked with more violence than the use of powder cocaine. Even first-time offenders convicted of possession of as little as five grams of crack base substance could be sentenced to five to2 years in prison. Washington: GPO, 1995, June29.
6 The intensity of the high creates a greater psychological dependence on crack than experienced by users of powder cocaine. According to testimony at a recent Congressional hearing, "We believe that sound drug sentencing policy should reflect a reasoned judgment as to the relative harms to our society of each illicit substance" (U.S. By 1986, the stage had been set for current federal policy on crack cocaine sentencing.

Similar Documents

Premium Essay

Racism in the American Criminal Justice System

...action, the argument has been made that racial discrimination is no longer a pressing issue in American society.[1] It has further been argued that the Constitution protects all citizens, and race has no weight in the American criminal justice system.[2] While the United States Constitution guarantees equal treatment of all citizens, regardless of race, racism still exists in the American law enforcement and criminal justice systems. In this era with the end of official institutional racism, there has been a corresponding shift from de jure racism to a de facto racism where members of minority groups, especially African Americans, are subject to unequal protection of the laws and excessive in the American criminal justice system, particularly in drug law enforcement.[3] Drug law enforcement is far more discretionary than for other offenses. It is for the police to decide when and where they will seek to make drug arrests, and what priority they will place on enforcing drug laws.[4] Since the war on drugs began in the 1980s, two general trends have been identified. First, there has been a substantial increasing in the number of drug arrests overall; and second, black males have constituted an increasing proportion of these arrests.[5] Based on this evidence, it would be natural to assume that the number of arrests is proportional to the crime rate – that blacks began using drugs in greater numbers since the 1980s and continue to up to the present day. In reality however...

Words: 3035 - Pages: 13

Free Essay

Crack Cocaine & Mass Incarceration

...The American Crack Epidemic: How the War on Drugs was as Detrimental to Society as Drugs Themselves. Lucas Carneiro U.S. History 4/21/2013 Throughout the mid-20th century, Americans have experimented with illicit drugs, from marijuana to LSD. In the late 70s and early 80s, the high cost of cocaine made it the drug of choice for wealthy, elite, White Americans. On the other side of the social spectrum, lower-class African Americans sought an escape from their difficult circumstances in impoverished inner-city neighborhoods. They found refuge in crack, a smokeable form of cocaine, whose low production cost, high addictiveness, and debilitating nature made it the drug of choice for urban African American communities in 1986 (Reinarman, 1997; Watkins, 1998; Fullilove, 1998). The drug contributed to the increase in disease, violence, and poverty in these communities, turning inner-city neighborhoods into “war zones”. The U.S. Government’s War on Drugs campaign did little to solve this crisis, using aggressive, military tactics to address an epidemic surrounded by socioeconomic and health issues. In the 1960s, the Vietnam conflict among several unpopular moves by the U.S. government created a generation of rebellious, young Americans. This generation experimented with drugs in order to alter their state of mind, and to escape from the problems that came with politics and society. The generation of young “hippies” ignited a drug culture in the U.S. As time progressed, people...

Words: 2189 - Pages: 9

Premium Essay

The Pros And Cons Of Punishment

...There are many African Americans that know exactly how this feels, because they have gone through this. They have gone through this because of some terrible decisions made by the United States government. This small offense they have committed is only drug possession. Yes they were breaking the law, but does the punishment really fit the crime. No it does not! Especially when others are not getting as harsh of punishments when they are caught with a different type of drug. Something is not adding up here, and it is pretty clear what it is. Someone wanted to get rid of the African Americans to help him win a presidential...

Words: 779 - Pages: 4

Free Essay

Jdlasdj

...JENKINS Wednesday, March 20, 2013 1ST PERIOD It was during the mid-1980s that the emergence of a new smokable form of cocaine, called crack, had been introduced to the United States just about everyone was doing it. Some did it when they were pregnant, which had effects on the child and their learning abilities. The effect on the crack epidemic in the 80s helped the youth of today, to make better choices in life concerning this addictive drug. Crack, was highly-addictive and swept through plenty areas of cities such as New York, Los Angeles, Oakland, and Miami. In the end it caused devastating effects for black and Latino Americans. As crack cocaine was becoming popular and rising epidemic, hip hop was evolving alongside it. It was in the 1980s that crack cocaine and hip hop became the two leading fundamentals of urban street culture. It is not suggested that hip hop caused the crack epidemic, or vice versa. But, it can be argued that both fed off each other, particularly hip hop off the crack culture itself. Crack cocaine quickly gained popularity among users in the 1980s due to its cheap cost, and the quick, intense high it left. Compared to freebase cocaine, which involved a complicated ritual involving Ether, crack cocaine had become simplistic and easier to manage. The drug was “made from powder cocaine, it was safer to make than freebase cocaine”. As crack and dope became parts of our neighborhoods, they started to have an impression on our culture through music and television...

Words: 1109 - Pages: 5

Premium Essay

Federal Sentencing Guidelines

...The criminal justice system is constantly changing and will always have flaws because people will always have opinions and biases. There will always be disparity among sentences depending on the seriousness of the offense. The criminal justice system will never be perfect, but it will continue to evolve over time. Works Cited -ENGEN, RODNEY L., and RANDY R. GAINEY. "modeling the Effects of Legally Relevant and Extralegal Factors Under Sentencing Guidelines: The Rules Have Changed." Criminology, vol. 38, no. 4, 2000, pp. 1207-1230. -Gazal-Ayal, Oren, Hagit Turjeman, and Gideon Fishman. "do Sentencing Guidelines Increase Prosecutorial Power? an Empirical Study." Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 76, no. 1, 2013, pp. 131. -Kempf-Leonard, Kimberly, and Lisa L. Sample. "Have Federal Sentencing Guidelines Reduced Severity? an Examination of One Circuit." Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol. 17, no. 2, 2001, pp. 111-144. -Koons-Witt, Barbara A. "Equal Justice Versus Individualized Justice: Discretion and the Current State of Sentencing Guidelines." Criminology & Public Policy, vol. 8, no. 2, 2009, pp. 279-283. -Logue, Melissa A. "Downward Departures in US Federal Courts: Do Family Ties, Sex, and race/ethnicity Matter?" Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 34, no...

Words: 2135 - Pages: 9

Free Essay

Race and Inprisonment in the United States

...SOC350 Gail Rognan April 14, 2012 Introduction Sharp differences in drug arrest rates in different U.S. cities show that much of the racial disparity is the result of decisions by local law enforcement officials to concentrate enforcement in minority inner-city neighborhoods rather than, for instance, in majority white suburbs (Disproportionate Incarceration. 2009). The proof of this lies in the data that one in nine black men between the ages of 25-29 are incarcerated compared to one in 30 other men of the same age. Why? The purpose of this paper is to investigate how racial discrimination in the justice system still exists and how it correlates to the misconception that drug abuse and drug dealing activity is more prevalent among African American males in this age group. Another factor to be addressed is how society has victimized the black man in the “get tough on crime” and the “war on drug” movements. And finally, this paper will address how continued discrimination affects peoples’ ability to change. Race and Imprisonment in the United States Statistics show that African-American men make up 13.6 percent of the U.S. population and 40.2 percent of the U.S. prison population. Even though rates of drug use and selling are similar across the races, people of color are far more likely to be stopped, searched, arrested, prosecuted, convicted and incarcerated for drug law violations than are whites. Michelle Alexander, the author of "The New...

Words: 1659 - Pages: 7

Premium Essay

Pros And Cons Of Incarceration

...The United States of Incarceration Introduction As we near the end of 2015, racial discrimination remains an issue that can quickly create controversy and heated debate. The ‘Black Lives Matter’ movement has become a common topic for families, which many believing that minorities are treated more harshly than whites in similar incidents. However, this movement should widen the scoop of its focus to include the discrimination not just of law enforcement officials, but also of the criminal justice system itself. Disparities in sentencing have skyrocketed since the 1980s and this increase is pushed by the war on drugs. Despite the clear evidence showing that sentencing reform must become a priority for policymakers due to both the social and economic aspects of this issue, things remain the same. The purpose of this essay is to inform the debate on sentencing reform, race, and education....

Words: 1647 - Pages: 7

Premium Essay

War on Drugs

...War on Drugs 1 Running Head: WAR on DRUGS: EFFECTS of DRUGS War on Drugs: Effects of Drugs Matthew Boone Camden County College War on Drugs 2 Abstract This paper will attempt to explore the effects of the War on Drugs by showing the way drugs have effects on people and been classified. This researcher will show how effects of drugs plays a major factor in today’s society. It will explore the cost of incarceration that play apart of today’s economy and how it has increased since the War on Drugs. This paper will also explore the term drug interdiction and how it has affected the War on Drugs. Drug interdiction is the process of confiscating illegal drugs from traffickers smuggling drugs into the United States borders. War on Drugs 3 War on Drugs Drugs have been around for years, being used for their medicinal uses, for their hallucination affects and other reasons. The same drugs are still being used today. Some argue that certain drugs should be legal considering that they are mainly plant based and therefore natural. The problem with it is people are learning ways to modify and condense the chemicals that are producing the affects wanted and making the affects stronger. Drugs are also being combined to create new drinks and drugs to be used, known as designer drugs. These new combinations can become lethal due to the drugs being condensed to intensify the effects. The United States has been fighting a war on drugs for over 100 years. In...

Words: 2701 - Pages: 11

Premium Essay

Racial Disparities in Prisons

...RUNNING HEADER: American Prisons 1 The American Prisons and Judicial Systems Megan Pierce English Composition 122 Professor Angela Temple September 23, 2013 American Prisons 2 There’s no question about the about the racial disparity in America’s prison system. More than 60 percent of people in prison are now racial and ethnic minorities. For black males in their thirties, one in every ten is in prison or jail on any given day. These trends have been intensified by the disproportionate impact of the “war on drugs,” in which two thirds of all persons in prison for drug offenses are people of color. Guerin, P., Harrison, (2011) Washington, D.C: Bureau of Justice statistics. American prisons have a disparity of minority inmate population. Is this trend due to a higher rate of minority crimes, or the manner in which the judicial system operates? Some people have negative views about the people in the inner cities where disproportionate numbers of impoverished and African Americans live. Robert Right, an evolutionary psychologist believed the high rate of young African American men in prison is due to their adaptation to poverty. Conservatives think poverty is due to African American sub culture that is pathologic. Harvard professor James Wilson claimed, “The reason why it is called an underclass is that its members have a bad character: they mug, do drugs, and desert children.” (Miller,1996). There is a recurring idea that the inner...

Words: 2136 - Pages: 9

Free Essay

Racism in the Criminal Justice System

.......................................................................................................................8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................29 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................31 Research Proposal The goal of my research is to expose the racism in the criminal justice system that is so hidden. I want to show how racism contributes to the huge number of incarcerated African Americans. The criminal justice system creates and perpetuates racial hierarchy in the United States, and has done so throughout history. African Americans are criminalized and targeted because of their skin color. I want to look at the Reagan administration, the War on Drugs, corrupt police practices, media, inner city enforcement, police discretion, racial...

Words: 9753 - Pages: 40

Premium Essay

Essay

...between them that justifies such difference in treatment (Rachels 1999: 94). Equality is a nonspecific term that means nothing until applied to a particular context. Thus, in a political context, equality means equal access to public office and equal treatment under the law, and equal treatment extends to equality in terms of job hiring, promotion, and pay. Race refers to groups of persons who are relatively alike in their biological inheritance and are distinct from other groups (American Anthropological Association 1997: 2). Ethnicity is a cultural phenomenon referring to a person’s identification with a particular cultural group (Hinman 1998: 403). Race is socially constructed, and the notion that persons “belong” to a particular race was developed in the last century based on the belief that there was a biological basis for categorizing groups of people. Biologically, however, the term race has no meaning, yet society continues to give the notion meaning by using it as a social category. The notion of race gradually took hold in U.S. society when the institution of slavery reinforced the idea that one race could be inferior to another (Banks and Eberhardt 1998: 58). In the United States, the law has had the effect of distributing benefits and burdens based on race, and the assignment of a person to a racial...

Words: 10761 - Pages: 44

Premium Essay

Analysis of Racial Profiling in the Criminal Justice System

...questions about police racial profiling have also come to light. Today’s police are considered to be corrupt and prejudice against minorities. Their image has been tarnished and police are now seen as the enemy. Many compare today’s law enforcement officers to the police officers that were prejudice and brutalized blacks during the civil rights movement. If police are to change the public’s perception of them so they can get back to the business of protecting and serving, they must address issues of racial profiling, police brutality and the criminal just system must partner with the community to reduce crime rates and recidivism rates among minorities. First, racial profiling is defined as “any police action initiated on the basis of race, ethnicity, or national origin of a suspect; rather than on the behavior of the individual or on information that leads the police to a particular individual who has been identified as being, or having been, engaged in criminal activity (Ramirez, 2008, p.3). Originally, racial profiling was used to combat the issue of drugs and assist with drug enforcement. In fact, during early implementation, racial profiling or profiling as it was called by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was used to catch drug couriers attempting to enter to enter the country. The US Customs service and DEA developed a number of personal indicators that seemed from the agency’s day to day enforcement experiences to e associated with increased...

Words: 3239 - Pages: 13

Premium Essay

It Takes a Nation

...The War on Drugs, Mass Incarceration, and a Call to Action for America's Black Youth By Carl L. Young An Alternative Plan Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science In Sociology: Corrections Minnesota State University, Mankato Mankato, Minnesota Spring 2013 Final Draft 4/20/2013     1     This Alternative Plan Paper has been examined and approved by the following members of the Examining Committee. _____________________ Dr. Leah Rogne, Advisor _____________________ Dr. William Wagner _____________________ Dr. Penny Jo Rosenthal _____________________ Dr. Nadarajan Sethuraju                                                   ________________          Date   2     A bstract                    This alternative plan paper examines the circumstances that have evolved as a incarceration of the Black community. In the last thirty years, the federal government of the United States of America has engaged in camp which has involved a variety of policies to stop the production, distribution and sale of illegal narcotics. Hundreds of billions of dollars have been spent in a war that has targeted the most vulnerable in our society, impacting its youth for generations to come. This alternative plan paper addresses the impact of the War on Drugs and the criminal ...

Words: 18864 - Pages: 76

Premium Essay

It Takes a Nation of Millions

...It Takes A Nation Of Millions To Hold Us Back: The War on Drugs, Mass Incarceration, and a Call to Action for America's Black Youth By Carl L. Young An Alternative Plan Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science In Sociology: Corrections Minnesota State University, Mankato Mankato, Minnesota Spring 2013 Final Draft 4/20/2013 1 This Alternative Plan Paper has been examined and approved by the following members of the Examining Committee. _____________________ Dr. Leah Rogne, Advisor _____________________ Dr. William Wagner _____________________ Dr. Penny Jo Rosenthal _____________________ Dr. Nadarajan Sethuraju ________________ Date 2 Abstract This alternative plan paper examines the circumstances that have evolved as a result of the Reagan Administration’s War on Drugs and the increase of mass incarceration of the Black community. In the last thirty years, the federal government of the United States of America has engaged in campaign known as the “War on Drugs,” which has involved a variety of policies to stop the production, distribution and sale of illegal narcotics. Hundreds of billions of dollars have been spent in a war that has targeted the most vulnerable in our society, impacting its youth for generations to come. This alternative plan paper addresses the impact of the War on Drugs and the criminal justice policies that have impacted the life chances of Black youth nationwide and calls for a new social movement...

Words: 19872 - Pages: 80

Premium Essay

The Racial Disparities and Incarceration of Juvenile Delinquents

...The Racial Disparities and Incarceration of Juvenile Delinquents Mario M. Tate University of Memphis Abstract The criminal justice system has had to enact harsher treatment due to the erratic and unpredictable nature of juvenile delinquents who refuse to follow the law. The age ranges for juveniles that are being considered in this study are 12-18 years old. I want to address the ever growing problems of racial disparity and incarceration of juvenile delinquents, who tend to not have any other options, but being arrested and are preyed upon because of their racial make-up. Single parent households, lack of education, supervision, and economics are some of the contributing factors which have lead many juveniles down the road to their deviant behavior. Data has been collected to try and understand the reasons for the defiant behavior of juveniles, so advocates may assist them in remaining with their families; through constant monitoring and evaluations of behavior and actions of our children they may stand a significant chance of growing up to be prosperous and productive adults. Also increased funding through the Juvenile Justice Prevention Act will help local state and county municipalities’ kick-start programs to assist today’s youth. Keywords: juvenile delinquents, incarceration, racial disparity, juvenile justice, racial discrimination, jail, juvenile courts The history of juvenile delinquency and racial disparity has gone hand in hand for a very long time and...

Words: 4826 - Pages: 20