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Grammar in French

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

Introduction à l’énoncé complexe

1) Qu’est-ce qu’un énoncé complexe ? En fait c’est très simple : c’est un énoncé qui comporte plus d’une relation prédicative, c'est-à-dire + d’un prédicat (verbe+compléments). Relation prédicative = relation Sujet / Prédicat (hors détermination) ⇒ dès l’instant où vous avez plusieurs verbes dans un énoncé, c’est qu’il s’agit d’un énoncé complexe. Il faudra donc prendre l’habitude de retrouver les relations prédicatives imbriquées, reliées dans l’énoncé complexe : souligner les verbes, chercher leur sujet.. Petit corpus d’exemples de base: a) I enjoy walking barefoot in the grass (/I enjoy films) 2 relations prédicatives: + < I / walk barefoot in the grass > b) I expect him to arrive at 5. c) He thought that (Ø) he could walk on water. d) My brother who lives in Canada is bald. e) He’s a cop, but he isn’t a bastard. f) If he’d killed him, he would be in jail now.

La question, bien sûr, est de comprendre ce qui distingue une suite de 2 énoncés simples d’un énoncé complexe. Par exemple qu’est-ce qui distingue l’énoncé e) ci-dessus de la suite : He’s a cop. He isn’t a bastard. Ou l’énoncé d) du suivant: My brother lives in Canada. He’s bald. Au niveau du sens: même représentation ? Au niveau syntaxique : on passe de la parataxe (mis à côté) à l’hypotaxe (mis en dessous) : deux énoncés indépendants peuvent être juxtaposés, ou bien mis dans une relation de dépendance.
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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

Dans un énoncé complexe, les relations prédicatives sont liées, connectées, imbriquées pour former une sorte de macro relation prédicative : (S / P1 ) // (S/P2) r Cette relation entre les 2 relations prédicatives (que l’on appelle souvent des propositions) est marquée, construite linguistiquement, par un marqueur de relation (relateur) qui définit un certain type de relation ⇒ identifier les relateurs dans les énoncés complexes donnés : -ing, to, that ou Ø, who, but, if sont des relateurs. Chaque relateur, comme tout signe linguistique, a un fonctionnement propre, et donc définit une relation particulière entre les propositions : - une relation syntaxique particulière - une relation sémantique particulière.

2) Les enjeux de l’analyse de l’énoncé complexe sont donc doubles :

a) analyse syntaxique : syntaxe = mettre ensemble (cf synchronie..) : imbriquer, relier, connecter. Il faut donc connaître et reconnaître les différents types d’imbrications possibles entre plusieurs propositions. On commencera donc par établir une typologie des différents types d’imbrications possibles. Typologie complète des énoncés complexes, pour mieux les identifier, comprendre leur construction, leur type de dépendance.

b) analyse sémantique : au sein d’un même type de construction, disons, par exemple, les subordonnées adverbiales (circonstancielles), quelle différence de dépendance sémantique y a-t-il entre : When he comes, I’ll tell him / If he comes, I’ll tell him I saw him run / I saw him running.
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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

He’s knows this book well because he’s read it twice / Since he’s read this book twice, he knows it well. Les différents relateurs contruisent donc des relations de dépendance sémantiques différentes. On essaiera de cerner le fonctionnement invariant des relateurs les plus importants, comme on a pu le faire avec les temps verbaux, les modaux etc. (SEULE L’ANALYSE SYNTAXIQUE SERA TRAITEE ICI DANS LA CADRE DE LA REDEFINITION DU PROGRAMME)

Typologie des énoncés complexes
On peut déjà dégager trois grandes catégories de liens inter-propositionnels : - la parataxe : He left. She cried all day. 2 relations prédicatives indépendantes, juxtaposées. Pas de relateur autre que la ponctuation (et à l’oral, l’intonation). Donc pas relation syntaxique marquée autre que la simple juxtaposition. MAIS La parataxe peut induire des relations sémantiques entre les 2 propositions par leur successivité linéaire, ou par le bais d’aspects internes: He left. She had cried all day. - la coordination : and, or but, (for ?) 2 relations prédicatives sont coordonnées sans relation de dépendance et de hiérarchie : pas une proposition principale et l’autre subordonnée, 2 unités de même niveau sont reliées co-ordonnées (ordonnées ensemble). He fell down and hurt himself Ne peuvent être coordonnées que des unités de même catégorie et de même fonction. They left and never came back. (coordination de groupes verbaux) Paul and Simon eat a lot. (coordination de groupes nominaux sujets) *He jumped and quickly. (impossible de coordonner un verbe et un adverbe)

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

- la subordination (hypotaxe)

2 relations prédicatives sont subordonnées, l’une étant dépendante de l’autre (sub=sous). Plusieurs propositions peuvent donc être imbriquées syntaxiquement, comme des poupées russes, grâce à des relateurs. La proposition subordonnée est ‘régie’ par une principale, elle dépend du verbe dit ‘recteur’ dans la principale, ou d’un nom antécédent dans un groupe nominal.

⇒ il existe plusieurs types d’hypotaxe possible, et donc différents types de subordonnées, qu’on peut classer en 3 grandes catégories qu’on a nommées selon la fonction que ces subordonnées peuvent occuper par rapport à leur élément recteur : - les subordonnées nominales - les subordonnées relatives - les subordonnées adverbiale

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

Chapitre 2 Analyse syntaxique des énoncés complexe

1) Les subordonnées nominales :

1a) les nominales finies ex c) He thought [Ø he could walk on water] 2 relations prédicatives: a b Le relation predicative b) développe le contenu de ce que le sujet he pense, elle complète la place de COD (le sthg) du verbe dans la relation prédicative a). La rel pred b est ainsi subordonnée à la principale a), elle complète le verbe recteur think en tant que COD. On appelle ces subordonnées des nominales, car elles ont la même fonction qu’un groupe nominal : elles peuvent avoir la fonction COD ou sujet du verbe recteur de la principale. Celles qui sont COD, on les appelle parfois des ‘complétives’. Ici relateur Ø raccroche la subordonnée à la principale. John believes [that he’s going to win] Même construction syntaxique avec une subordonnée nominale introduite par le relateur that, COD du verbe recteur believe.

Une nominale peut également avoir la fonction sujet du verbe recteur de la principale : [That he should be so ugly] surprised everyone.
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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

Rel pred? La subordonnée ici développe le sujet de surprise. Il s’agit d’une subordonnée nominale ayant une fonction sujet du verbe recteur de la principale.

A noter : souvent, les nominales à fonction sujet sont extraposées : It surprised everyone [that he should be so ugly]. It est une pro-forme au sémantisme vide qui n’a de rôle que d’occuper la place syntaxique vide du sujet. It est donc le sujet syntaxique du verbe surprise, mais la subordonnée nominale est le véritable sujet sémantique du verbe.

Que diriez-vous des énoncés a) et b) ? Comment s’organisent les relations prédicatives ? a) I enjoy [walking barefoot in the grass] = (I /enjoy films) + < I / walk barefoot in the grass > b)I expect [him to arrive at 5].

Ces subordonnées complètent également un verbe recteur en tant que COD, il s’agit donc également de subordonnées nominales. Idem : I saw [Ø him run]

Quels relateurs pour ces nominales ? Quelle différence avec les nominales précédentes ?

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

On distingue les subordonnées nominales à verbe conjugué (finies) / subordonnées nominales à verbe non conjugué (non finies)

1.b) Les subordonnées nominales non-finies

Nominales non-finies : elles comportent un verbe non conjugué, c'est-à-dire qui ne porte pas la marque du temps. 4 formes sont possibles, selon le relateur utilisé : - les non-finies ‘infinitives’ en to : V1 [(S) to V2] Notez les rel pred, crochetez les sub, et donnez leur fonction par rapport au verbe recteur, entourez le relateur: He hoped [to repair it]. I want [to go]. I would love [Bill to kill Brad]. [To be a cat] must be great [For a cop to believe in this way] is unbelievable. It is unbelievable [for a cop to believe in this way]. A noter que lorsque le sujet n’est pas exprimé dans la subordonnée, c’est qu’il est co-référent à celui du verbe recteur, sinon il est non co-référent. Lorsque le sujet est exprimé dans la sub, celle-ci inclut le sujet. - les non-finies gérondives : V1 [(S) V2ing] même analyse syntaxique, ici –ing relateur. I saw [him running]

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

I can’t help [eating]. [Eating bananas] is good for you. (sujet) - les non finies à base verbale : V1 Ø [(S) V2] I saw [him run]. He helped [me do the washing up]. - les non finies passives: V1 [(S) V2en] The car got [repaired] He had [it done by someone else] Les nominales (finies et non finies) peuvent être classées en 4 types : - les nominales déclaratives indirectes : elles dépendent d’un verbe recteur de type assertif, déclaratif, tel que ‘say’, ‘believe’, ‘think’, ‘assume’.. verbes introducteurs de discours ou de pensée : She said [she would come]. She assumed [that he was right]. He thought [life was a bed of roses].

- les nominales interrogatives indirectes: complètent un verbe recteur qui signale une question ou un questionnement, un manque d’information, un doute etc. I asked him [what he wanted] The boy wondered [where he was]. I don’t know [why he came]. He asked me [where to go]. Comme pour les déclaratives indirectes, on peut les faire passer au discours direct.
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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

- les nominales exclamatives indirectes : complètent un verbe recteur qui signale une exclamation, une surprise, une admiration, ou bien la subordonnée est introduite par un relateur exclamatif.. It’s amazing [how tall he is] (fonction sujet). She remembered [what a struggle it had been]. - les nominales finies impératives indirectes: complètent un verbe recteur qui indique un acte illocutionnaire de type impératif : une injonction, une demande d’acte, un ordre.. Attention ici au sens du verbe introducteur : I asked him what he wanted ≠ I asked [him to come]. (non finies pour la plupart, car acte non accomplis) I told [him to come] I demanded [that he should be punished immediately].

2) Les subordonnées relatives

Contrairement aux subordonnées nominales, les relatives ne développent pas, ne complémentent pas un verbe, mais développent un nom, un antécédent nominal.
GN

[The chicken sub[ that you bought]] was full of hormones

Le nom chicken est commun aux deux relations prédicatives, c’est lui qui est développé dans la subordonnée relative: il est l’antécédent du pronom relatif that. La subordonnée relative est imbriquée dans le groupe nominal, elle a pour fonction complément du nom antécédent chicken.

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

Le pronom relatif est donc l’élément relateur dans cet énoncé complexe. Il reprend un nom antécédent pour l’investir dans une nouvelle relation prédicative. Le pronom that est ici COD du verbe de la relative ‘buy’.

Les pronoms relatifs donnent une souvent une indication sur deux choses : - le caractère animé humain ou non animé-humain de l’antécédent - la fonction du pronom par rapport au verbe de la relative, dans la mesure où la plupart conserve d’anciennes marques de cas :

cas

nominatif

accusatif complément WHOM (WHO) THAT Ø

génitif CdN

fonction sujet humain WHO

WHOSE

Non humain

WHICH THAT

WHICH THAT Ø

WHOSE Of which

Le pronom relatif peut aussi avoir pour fonction COI dans la relative, notamment avec une préposition, même si celle-ci reste souvent placée après le verbe : The people [that she was looking at] were shouting.

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

Il est même des cas où le relatif a pour fonction complément circonstanciel dans la relative, et on a coutume de nommer alors la subordonnée une ‘relative adverbiale’ : - les relatives dites ‘adverbiales’
GN GN

[The reason sub[why I came]] is obvious [The year sub[when he was born]] was awful

I remember GN[the place sub[where he sat]]. Ici les subordonnées relatives complètent toujours le nom (CdN) mais le pronom relatif est Complément circonstanciel du verbe de la subordonnée. Ce sont donc des relatives dont le pronom a une fonction circonstancielle (adverbiale) par rapport au verbe de la relative. L’antécédent est repris et complété pour avoir une fonction circonstancielle dans la relative. Les subordonnées relatives ont la plupart du temps pour fonction d’être complément du Nom qu’elles développent. Il existe cependant un cas particuliers : les relatives dites ‘nominales’, sans antécédent, qui ont une fonction de

sujet ou d’objet du verbe de la principale, parce qu’elles se confondent avec le GN qu’elles développent : sub [What he said] surprised everybody.

= GN[The things sub[that he said]] Le pronom relatif what inclut son propre antécédent, ce qui fait que la subordonnée relative forme avec le pronom un groupe nominal qui a une fonction ici de sujet du verbe surprise. Le pronom relatif what a une fonction de COD du verbe say dans la relative, mais l’ensemble de la subordonnée est sujet de surprise. C’est pourquoi on les nomme relative nominale. Une relative nominale peut également être COD du verbe de la principale : He told me [what her mother had said].

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

Look at [what his father gave me]. Dans ces cas encore, what = the thing that et inclut son antécédent. Le pronom est COD du verbe dans la relative, et la relative est COD ou COI des verbes de la principale. On trouve également des relatives nominales avec comme pronom : whoever, whatever.. Whoever did that must be completely crazy (=anybody who)

Attention: La présence d’un pronom relatif sans antécédent what, qui donne une fonction nominale à ce qui reste au niveau des catégorie une subordonnée relative, peut faire penser aux structures interrogatives indirectes : I wonder what his father gave me. Look at what his father gave me. Dans le premier cas what est un relateur de type pronom interrogatif indirect qui complète un verbe recteur interrogatif. La subordonnée est une subordonnée nominale interrogative indirecte. Le what ne peut être développé en the thing that : *I wonder the thing that.. En revanche on peut reconstruire une question indirecte sous-jascente: What did his father give me? Il faut donc ne pas confondre un what interrogatif et un what pronom relatif. Interrogative indirecte ou relative ? I asked him what he had done. Tell me what bothers you. They’ll agree to whatever you ask them to do. I’m not sure what it is.

2) LES CLIVEES et PSEUDOS CLIVEES

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

a) LES CLIVEES Ashley kissed Victor in the bath. Un seul prédicat, énoncé simple. On peut scinder l’énoncé en 2 pour faire ‘ressortir’, physiquement et sémantiquement, un syntagme de l’énoncé : - le GN sujet : It was Ashley who kissed Victor in the bath - le GN COD: It was Victor whom/that Ashley kissed in the bath - le PP complement circonstanciel de lieu It was in the bath that Ashley kissed Victor Ce processus syntaxique s’appelle le CLIVAGE, il consiste à couper l’énoncé simple en 2 propositions selon le schema: It be X that/who P ⇒ La 1ère proposition est constituée du pronom sémantiquement vide IT et de la copule BE, qui introduit l’antéposition du syntagme X (le sujet, COD, CC etc..). It prend la position de sujet syntaxique et BE va identifier IT à l’élément antéposé (co-référence cataphorique). ⇒ La deuxième proposition devient une subordonnée relative qui prend X pour antécédent, repris par un pronom relatif, pour l’associer au prédicat de base. Cette séparation/clivage est une opération seconde sur l’énoncé simple, qui relève d’une stratégie de l’énonciateur pour mettre en relief un élément de la relation prédicative avec une valeur contrastive. Sémantiquement l’élément antéposé devient restrictif par rapport au prédicat (glose en only).

Pour analyser une clivée : - montrez le schéma de construction syntaxique de l’énoncé et comparez le au schéma simple à partir duquel il est scindé.
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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

- Décrivez syntaxiquement les 2 propositions - Montrez et glosez la stratégie énonciative en contexte

b) LES PSEUDO-CLIVEES Là aussi il y a séparation en 2 propositions d’un énoncé simple, mais selon un autre schéma, qui n’antépose pas l’élément mis en relief mais fait ressortir le prédicat et pose l’élément extrait en fin d’énoncé (end focus) :

We need a little break ⇒ What we need is a little break What S/P be X

- la 1ère proposition est une subordonnée nominale sans antécedent (the thing that we need) en fonction sujet, - la 2ème proposition identifie par BE cette relative sans antécédent à un syntagme Il y a ici encore une stratégie de mise en relied, de contraste et de restriction sur l’élément X. Il s’agit d’un jeu sur le lien entre la structure syntaxique et l’organisation des infos en info ancienne (thème) / info nouvelle (rhème). Cette structure pseudo clivée définit le syntagme X comme info nouvelle qui porte un accent contrastif. On peut aussi trouver des pseudo-clivées ‘renversées’ : A little break is what we need Où la subordonnée nominale devient attribut du sujet. Le valeur contrastive en est encore plus forte du fait de l’antéposition de l’élément rhématique.

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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

En fait tout mouvement d’un élément syntaxique par rapport à sa position canonique opère une mise en relief de l’élément déplacé.

4) LES SUBORDONNEES ADVERBIALES

Les sub adverbiales dépend syntaxiquement du verbe recteur de la proposition principale (comme les nominales), mais, contrairement aux nominales, les adverbiales n’ont pas la fonction COD, Sujet ou attribut, mais complètent le verbe recteur en définissant les circonstances de sa validation : Ex : She stopped drinking when her husband left She’s been ill since her cat died If her husband left her, she would stop drinking. Etc. Les sub adverbiales sont des propositions qui ont la fonction Complément Circonstanciel du verbe recteur, comme pourraient le faire des adverbes de temps, de manière, de lieu etc.

Ces subordonnées sont introduites par des conjonctions de subordination : Temps : when, after, until, since, as.. Cause: because, since, as.. Concession: though, while, whereas Condition: if, unless, But: so that, in order Etc..

Pour vos analyses syntaxiques, on attendra: - une reconnaissance du type de subordonnée et de sa fonction : nommer la relation sémantique, la conjonction responsable ;
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ALA LG 601 Grammaire Linguistique

Martine SEKALI

Attention à ne pas confondre avec une nominale, notamment une interrogative indirecte, ou une relative adverbiale : I will tell him everything when he comes (adverbiale) ≠ I don’t know when he will come. (nominale interrogative indirecte) ≠ There will be a day when you’ll be sorry (relative adverbiale)

I wonder if he’ll come I’ll tell him if he comes

- l’indication du sa portée : quel verbe recteur est complété par cette adverbiale ? Attention il y a parfois plusieurs verbes, il faut bien identifier le verbe recteur qui est complété par l’adverbiale, parfois l’adverbiale est antéposée par rapport à la principale.. When her husband left, she told me me she would stop drinking She told me she would stop drinking when her husband left Ambiguités possibles, voir en contexte, ponctuation.. Ensuite on verra plus tard pour les paramètres de l’analyse sémantique.

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