...Laboratory Activity 1 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Compounds that consist of carbon atoms and their molecules are known as organic compounds. This is the reason why Organic Chemistry is basically defined as the study of compounds of carbon. The electronic structure of the carbon atom shows that it has four valence electrons or electrons that are capable of forming chemical bonds. An atom, to be stable, must have four pairs of valence electrons or a total of eight electrons at its outermost energy level. There are two ways by which atoms can complete this configuration in the outermost energy level: 1. An atom may share electrons with other atoms so that with the shared electrons it acquires a complete outermost shell. The chemical bond formed is called a covalent bond. 2. An atom may lose or gain enough electrons to acquire stability of configuration. In the process, one atom becomes positively charged and the other negatively charged. These charged atoms are called ions. Therefore the chemical bond formed is known as ionic bond, a very strong chemical bond. Most organic compounds are covalent compounds. They are weaker or they easily yield to chemical reactions, e.g. combustion, and substitution. They have higher melting points compared with most inorganic compounds. They decompose and produce charcoal at moderate temperatures. Due to the nature of their chemical bonds, few ionize in water, therefore most organic compounds...
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...that substance gain more energy and vibrate more. These particles then bump into neighboring particles and some of their energy is transferred to them. This process continues and energy is eventually transferred from the hotter end to the colder end of the object. * Thermal convection is transferred from hot places to cold places by convection. Convection occurs when warmer areas of gas or liquid rises to cooler areas of that gas or liquid. The cooler gas or liquid replaces the warmer areas that have risen higher. This results in a continuous circulation pattern. For example Air above the respective land and water surfaces is warmed or cooled by conduction with those surfaces. During the day, the warmer land temperature results in a warmer and therefore, less dense and lighter air mass above the coast as compared with the adjacent air mass over the surface of water. As the warmer air...
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...were n-butyl alcohol, sec-butyl alcohol, tert-butyl alcohol, acetaldehyde, n-butyraldehyde, benzaldehyde, acetone, acetophenone, and isopropyl alcohol. Each of the samples were tested through solubility test of alcohols in water, Lucas test, Chromic acid test or the Jones oxidation test, 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazone (2,4-DNP) test, Fehling’s test, Tollens’ silver mirror test, and Iodoform test. Solubility test of alcohols in water was used to determine the amount of water needed for it to produce a homogenous dispersion and determine whether what kind of alcohol is soluble and insoluble in water. Lucas test was used to differentiate primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols. Chromic acid test was used to determine if the sample is oxidized and can also be used to differentiate ketones from aldehydes. 2, 4-Dinitrophenylhydrazone test was used to differentiate aldehydes and ketones. Fehling’s test and Tollens’ silver mirror test was used to determine whether the sample is an aldehyde. Lastly, Iodoform test was used for classification of methyl ketones. INTRODUCTION Hydroxyl compounds are those containing the hydroxyl group –OH. They can be classified into primary(1o), secondary(2o), tertiary(3o) alcohols, and phenol. Primary alcohols are those in which the hydroxyl group is attached to the carbon with only one carbon attached. Secondary alcohols are compounds in which the -OH is attached to a carbon which has two other carbons attached to it. Tertiary alcohols are compounds...
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...Specifically, it will seek to answer the question: 1. Is there will be a significant difference between the experimental ink with different formulations and the commercial ink in terms of: 1.1 color; 1.2 clarity; 1.3 odor; and 1.4 water resistance? b. Null Hypotheses The researcher will hypothesize that: 1. There will be no significant difference between the experimental ink with different formulations and the commercial ink in terms of: 1.1 color; 1.2 clarity; 1.3 odor; and 1.4 water resistance. c. Procedure Making the Product The materials that will be needed are 400 grams of Narra and Madre de Cacao barks each, tray, recycled ballpen containers, 500ml and 100ml beaker, stiring rod, double beam balance, laboratory gloves, glycerin/glycerol, ferrous sulfate, gum Arabic, rubbing alcohol. First, four-hundred grams each of Narra and Madre de Cacao barks will be gathered to Poblacion Bansud, Oriental Mindoro. After gathering the barks, it will be washed using tap water in order to remove the unnecessary dirt on it that may affect the product. The washed barks will be placed on the tray and will be sundried for three days. When the barks are totally dried, it will be cutted into smaller pieces. Then extraction will be done by boiling four-hundred grams each of Narra and Madre de Cacao barks with 700 ml of water for 60 minutes. After the extraction, it will be putted in a 500 ml beaker until...
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...little to no separation between the organic compounds, the impurities remained in the distillation flask. The impurities were later removed before extraction. Extractions were performed to further purify the distillate of the alcohols and sulfuric acid. Water was able to remove the leftover alcohol from the solution, which resulted in the water spikes in our NMR and IR spectrums. Water was able to remove the leftover alcohol because water is a polar molecule and the hydroxyl groups are attracted to the layer that is more polar. On the separatory funnel, there were three layers, organic layer (product layer), aqueous layer, then once again the organic layer. The product was formed on both the top and bottom layer even though they were only supposed to form on the bottom layer of the separatory funnel because the products are denser than water. If the organic layer converged at the top of the aqueous layer, it indicates that the reaction did not proceed as much as it should have and contained alcohol. Since the product was at both top and bottom layer, it means that some of the reagent was went through the reaction like it was supposed to and has no alcohol, but some reagents did not and contained some alcohol. The product was then washed with sodium bicarbonate to remove the acids in the organic layer, which produced salt and carbonic acid, which decomposed to water and CO2. The polarity of the C-Br bond allowed the organic layer to cling onto water molecules after the separation...
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...------------------------------------------------- Abstract The atoms in a compound are held together by a chemical bond. There are two types of chemical bond: ionic and covalent bond. An ionic or electrovalent bond results from the electrostatic attraction between metal and non-metal atoms by the transfer of electrons. _____________________________________________________________________________________ Introduction The atoms in a compound are held together by a chemical bond. There are two types of chemical bond: ionic and covalent bond. An ionic or electrovalent bond results from the electrostatic attraction between metal and non-metal atoms by the transfer of electrons. One example is the formation of bond between a sodium metal atom and a chlorine non-metal atom [1]. In contrast, covalent bond involves the sharing of valence electrons between non-metal atoms. A covalent bond becomes polar when there is unequal sharing of bonding electrons. This happens when the elements involved in the bond has a significant difference in their electronegativity, such as in hydrochloric acid, HCl. Equal distribution of bonding electrons leads to the formation of a non-polar covalent bond. This happens when there is small or no difference in electronegativity between the atoms in a bond. Chlorine gas, Cl2, has a non-polar covalent bond. Electrical conductivity, the flow of electric current, can be used as a basis for determining the type of chemical bond present in a compound. An ionic compound...
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...method to purify the isobutyl isobutyrate product from the starting material, isobutyl alcohol, and other reagents used in the synthesis and work-up of isobutyl isobutyrate. The synthesis reaction of isobutyl isobutyrate was monitored by Mini – Gas Chromatography in order to monitor the progression of reactant to product. Mini-GC is a very valuable way to evaluate the progress of a reaction for which Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) can not be used, while still only requiring a small sample of the reaction mixture. The isobutyl isobutyrate was separated via liquid/liquid extraction and purified by distillation. The separated isobutyl isobutyrate ester was then classified and checked for impurities by determination of Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), IR, and 1H NMR spectra. Results and Discussion For...
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...compounds in which the halogen atom is attached directly to the aromatic ring. U2 mod 1chem. Halogenoalkanes page2 of 4 Reactions of alkyl halides The point of attack would be the electron deficient carbon atom (due to the difference in electronegativity in the C-X bond) attached to the halogen atom , thus the attacking species would be a nucleophile. All reactions need the present of heat i.e. reflux 1. Alcohol formation (R represents any hydrocarbon chain) R—X + OH- R—OH + XPrimary and secondary alkyl halides undergo alkaline hydrolysis to the alcohol while tertiary alkyl halides can be hydrolysed by water. Aryl halides do not undergo hydrolysis except under VERY SEVERE conditions. Industrially chlorobenzene is reacted with NaOH(aq) at 360 °C at a high pressure then adding dilute HCl. 2. Amine formation R—X + NH3(alc) heat in a sealed tube R—NH2 + HX Note (alc) means an alcoholic solution as opposed to an aqueous solution. Further substitution can occur to give a secondary or even a tertiary amine. However if an excess of ammonia is used, a better yield of the primary amine can be obtained. 3. Nitrile (cyanide) formation R—X + CN- aqueous alcohol R—CN + XAqueous alcohol is used as the solvent, the alcohol dissolves the organic compound while the water dissolves the sodium cyanide (source of cyanide...
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...attention by the researchers and treatment providers and general public. However, it does not mean that women are not using or abusing substances or substance abuse among women were not exist in older days. Addiction cannot stay hidden because women are also equally vulnerable for substance addiction. This was evident when the national survey of the United States evidenced that drug use among women was increasing at a rate higher than for men, though men were still more likely to become addicted to drugs and alcohol than women (Westermeyer, & Boedicker, 2000; & Stein and Cyr, 1997). Recent literatures proved that though both men and women are equally vulnerable for substance addiction there is a clear difference among men and women substance users. A large number of researches suggest that women differ from men in a number of areas relating to alcohol and drug use the gender differences are reflected not only biologically but also in psychosocial dimensions too. The gender difference manifest from etiology of substance abuse to biopsychosocial consequences of substance abuse and also the treatment of substance abuse. Epidemiological...
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...issues around the world. In order to understand each factors, (Germov,2009) explains that history refers to how the past influences the present. Culture refers to how culture impacts on our lives. Structural factors refers to how particular forms of social organisations such as media, politics, technology, etc affect our lives while critical factors refers to how we can improve our actual environment. Based on my readings about Thailand as well as Australia, I found that there are extreme differences between the two. Even though Thailand is still developing while Australia has already developed, in Thailand there is a high risk of developing numerous infectious diseases due to malnutrition, poverty, hunger, agriculture, pollution, poor sanitation, HIV/AIDS and other diseases, no electricity supply, social and cultural exclusion, war, poor water quality, and inadequate health care food (Nikhil Ghimire, 2014). While people living in Australia have access to education, technology, food, clean water, public health settings, etc. Therefore the risk of developing infectious diseases is much lower yet it has other health issues which are predominant, such a cardiovascular diseases, cancer, obesity, Alzheimer, etc. Thailand, as well as many other developing countries suffers from diseases such as TB, cholera, HIV,...
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...INTRODUCTION Background of the Study The evolution of industrialization and mechanization in the 21st century made it possible to transform manual equipment into modern machinery. With this development, global reliance on petroleum-based fuel is constantly increasing, giving rise to a challenge on energy sufficiency. Negative impacts, such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, are associated with the combustion of these petroleum-based fuels (MacLellan, 2010). Major GHG contributors identified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) include industry (20%), residential and commercial (11%), and agriculture (8%) (Bogart, 2013). Adverse effects on health and the environment of using petroleum-based fuels, thus, urge scientific community to search and develop alternative renewable fuel to replace the current and existing petroleum-based fuels. Biofuels have been demonstrated by several researches to reduce GHG emissions as compared to gasoline (petrol) (Leen, 2012). Among the alternative biofuels, bioethanol has received considerable attention in transportation sector because of its utility as an octane booster, fuel additive, and even as neat fuel (Mudliar, et. al., 2009). Bioethanol can be derived from organic materials, such as energy crops like corn, wheat, sugar cane, sugar beet, and cassava, among others (Neves, et. al., 2007). However, due to their primary utility as food, these crops cannot provide the global demand for bioethanol production. Among...
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...with functional groups attached to the chain. The functional group gives the molecule its properties, regardless of what molecule contains it.[1] Examples of functional groups are that of hydroxyl (-OH) which is usually seen in alcohols, and carbonyl (C=0) which is seen in aldehydes and ketones. In this experiment, several tests were conducted to distinguish and differentiate various sample compounds such as ethanol, n-butyl alcohol, sec-butyl alcohol, tert-butyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, n-butyraldehyde, benzaldehyde, acetone, acetophenone, isopropyl alcohol, and acetaldehyde. The tests are the following: solubility test of alcohols in water, which gave a soluble result in ethanol, sec-butyl alcohol and tert-butyl alcohol. Next is the Lucas test, which is used to differentiate 1°, 2° & 3° alcohols. In Lucas test, tert-butyl alcohol gave an immediate turbid result; the rate of reaction was noted. Chromic Acid test (Jones Oxidation) which gave a positive result by producing a blue-green solution with the sample n-butyl alcohol, acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde, and isopropyl alcohol. 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazone (2,4-DNP) was used to detect presence of carbonyl groups. In this test, only acetophenone gave a red-orange precipitate. The tests to identify between aldehydes and ketones are Fehling’s test and Tollen’s Silver Mirror test. In Fehling’s test, it gave a brick-red precipitate in n-butyraldehyde and benzaldehyde; while in the Tollen’s Silver Mirror test it produced silver...
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...1.1.2 Molecules Quiz 1. Explain why water is described as a dipolar molecule. -Water is described as a dipolar molecule because it has a negative end and it has a positive end also. The oxygen is more electronegative so it pulls the electron cloud away from the hydrogen’s. So the hydrogen’s become more positive and the oxygen more negative. (2) 2. Give examples of hydrogen bond formation contributing to the structure of molecules. - The structure is maintained through different groups of amino acid residues. Tertiary and Quaternary form bond between 4 water molecules. (1) 3. Explain why sodium chloride dissolves in water. -Sodium Chloride dissolves in water because the positive part of the water molecules attracts the negative chloride ions and the negative part of the water molecules attracts the positively sodium ions. The polarity of water molecules enables water to dissolve many ionically bonded substances. Polar molecule has an uneven charge distribution. (1) 4. Explain why some organic molecules, such as simple sugars and alcohols, form aqueous solutions but others, such as lipids, do not. - Simple sugars and alcohols have charged polar groups which can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules (1) 5. Why is water an important transport medium in animals? Write down as many examples of where water is important in transport as you can. - Water is an important transport medium in animals because substances such as polar...
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...P1 Public Health Strategies in the UK and their origins. In this article I am going to describe the key features of public health strategies as they relate to current times in the UK. -Monitoring the health status of the population. This strategy involves keeping track of people’s health/keeping an eye on everyone though statics. By tracking changes in the health of the population health professionals are able to alert people to potential problems, for example regular check-ups, at doctors for asthma or Dentist to check up on teeth and make sure they are in good condition plus Orthodontic. Also the NHS provide a free midlife MOT to check people aged between 40-74, to make sure they are in good health and to help reduce the number of elderly who suffer with high blood pressure. Also for HIV, they monitor the health of the population with HIV tracking the number of people with HIV within the population. This helps the NHS find out the population of people with HIV in order for them to take further actions. -Identifying the health needs of the population. This strategy involves identifying health needs, including those that are common problems/ illness that are considered a major problem. For example identifying the illness and providing support through services or medicine, advert are a great way that can get you aware, and provide you with health awareness that is common in the population. Doctors for example monitor the health status of...
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...Water makes up more than half of the human body and is required for our cell systems to properly perform their necessary functions. Dehydration occurs when more water is lost than what is being taken in. Making sure we have the proper amount of fluids in our cells is vital to ensuring our bodies are able to properly perform their essentially necessary functions. Water acts like a cleanser, helping with the removal of harmful waste and possible deadly toxins. Our blood, which is made primarily of water, is responsible for carrying many nutrients to nearby waiting cells. Our immune system, which contains a fluid called lymph, is also made of water. If our immune system is affected by dehydration, it stops working properly and our body will not be fully capable of fighting off the harmful effects of illness and disease. Water also plays a vital role in the digestive process, by aiding in the break down of foods and liquids and the transportation of those food particles through the entire digestive system. Water is an important component concerning the process of producing and passing excess body waste. Another important role water plays is in regulating normal body temperature. When our internal organs get too warm, we begin the process of perspiration; pushing water out through pores in the skin, in an attempt to remove excess heat and regulate a normal body temperature. If our cell system is not properly, and continually hydrated we may begin feeling the minor symptoms...
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