...Assignment 2 The Philosophy of Science Hanken School of Economics Quantitative Research Methods M.C. 8.11.2010 Table of contents 1 The Philosophy of Science 1 1.1 The Philosophy of Marketing Theory: Historical and Future Directions – Mark Tadajewski 1 1.2 “Paradigms Lost”: On Theory and Method in Research in Marketing – Rohit Deshpande 4 1.3 Empirical Business Ethics Research and Paradigm Analysis – V. Brand 6 2 Summary on key learning notes 9 Bibliography 12 The Philosophy of Science The discussion of marketing as a science and the different paradigms related to it were unfamiliar to me before I read these articles included in the assignment. I had earlier gotten familiar with the discussion of economic sociology and the discussion and the debate between economics as a science (especially the neo-classic economic approach) and the subject it researches, i.e. the economic markets where these economic practices take place. It is thus also logical to become familiar with the evolution of marketing practices, as this to many degrees resembles and also equates to the evolution of economic sciences and other sciences alike. The articles are assessed in the order that I read them, since it is hopefully also possible for the reader to follow a logical construct in the development and adoption of the insight that the articles provide on marketing research. Even though this does not pose a logical progression of the articles time-wise, I still...
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...Assignment 2 – Philosophy of Science Sofia Ellmén, 072270 QRM, 23019 Instructor: Veronica Liljander Individual assignment 2 HT 2011 The aim of marketing research is to conduct empirical studies, which generate theory through the findings that the researcher makes in his or her study. In marketing research the object of research is usually concerned with consumer behavior and other social matters. When conducting academic research, one must not only be familiar with the appropriate theoretical framework to use, but also know which methods are suitable for conducting that particular study. Theory and methodology cannot be separated from each other, but should be seen instead as a whole. Depending on the theoretical framework you also commit yourself into using specific tools in the empirical research you aim to do. In other words, your world view directs what methodology you can and should use in your empirical work (Desphande,1983). The different world views are in this case broadly classified as research philosophy and when discussing different research stances one can take, we are talking about research paradigms. The three assigned articles by Desphande(1983), Brand(2009) and Tadajewski(2004) discuss the various research paradigms and how they can and should be contrasted to one another in order to form a more functional whole. In the first article by Desphande, a definition for paradigms by Thomas Kuhn is offered. Paradigms are described as a guide for...
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...8725 AR.qxd 25/08/2010 16:36 Page 1 1 Introduction to quantitative research 1.1. What is quantitative research? Research methods in education (and the other social sciences) are often divided into two main types: quantitative and qualitative methods. This book will discuss one of these two main strands: ‘quantitative methods’, and what distinguishes quantitative from qualitative methods. When you think of quantitative methods, you will probably have specific things in mind. You will probably be thinking of statistics, numbers, and many of you may be feeling somewhat apprehensive because you think quantitative methods are difficult. Apart from the last one, all these thoughts capture some of the essence of quantitative methods. The following definition, taken from Aliaga and Gunderson (2000), describes what we mean by quantitative research methods very well: Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analysed using mathematically based methods (in particular statistics)’. Let’s go through this definition step by step. The first element is explaining phenomena. This is a key element of all research, be it quantitative or qualitative. When we set out to do some research, we are always looking to explain something. In education, this could be questions like ‘why do teachers leave teaching?’, ‘what factors influence pupil achievement?’, and so on. The specificity of quantitative research lies in the next part of the definition. In quantitative...
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...Science relating to sociology is based upon the debate of how society should be studied. There two perspectives, Positivism and Interpretivism. Positivists such as Emile Durkheim believed that society can be studied with the same methods as all other natural sciences as Sociology is known as a social science. Interpretivists such as Weber argue that knowledge is based upon people's interpretations of things. Positivist sociologists argue that the methods used to study and research natural sciences can be used to study people within society, and that by doing this research problems within society can be resolved and social progress can be attained. Positivists believe that reality does exist and not is a figment of individuals minds which means it can objectively be studied and give factual results. Positivists prefer to use methods of research which will give them easily quantifiable results which they can then use to observe patterns and new laws within society. Positivists aim to find these patterns within society as they can then make general statements about society works. Comte believed that sociology was a science as it shared the same basics with sociology of trying to find cause and effects, and that by applying these scientific methods true objectivity would be able to attained. The view a positivist would take is that reality is not random but is made up of patterns allowing us to research it quantifiably. And that this quantifiable data would allow for sociologists...
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...The theories on crime deterrence and punishment have changed throughout history. Beccaria, Lombroso and Durkheim are three theorists who have changed the way deterrence, punishment and crime generally is viewed within society. This research paper will first explore each of the theorists’ ideas separately. It will then examine the similarities and differences between each theory. Cesare Beccaria, born in 1738, focused on deterrence as the means of crime prevention. Beccaria fits into the Classical School of thinking, and wrote in a time when torture was used regularly to obtain information from people, and where capital punishment could be used for any type of offence. Punishment was based on a retributive means, where the punishment, or harm, given was equal to the harm caused by the perpetrator. In 1764, Beccaria published a book called “On crimes and Punishments”, where he theorised that this approach did not discourage determined criminals from committing crimes. He suggested, however, by taking away their liberty through incarceration that this would deter other would-be criminals not to commit similar crimes, and would also prevent the perpetrator to recommit the crime again. He based this theory on the utilitarian ideals: “the greatest happiness shared by the greatest number” (Beccaria 1764/1994, p. 227). In his book, Beccaria theorised the deterrence to a crime would increase in effectiveness the faster the punishment was delivered. He also argued that the punishment...
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...ANALYTICAL JURISPRUDENCE (LEGAL POSITIVISM) Synopsis: (i) Socio-economic and historical context on which it arose. (ii) Positivism in Philosophy – the important founder Augustine Cômte. (iii) Its expression in Law – Analytical Legal Positivism. (a) Different aspects of Legal Positivism (b) John Austin (c) Neo-Positivist Trends (aa) Hart’s Concept (bb) Linguistic Trend (iv) Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law (v) General Appraisal and Critique (1) Socio-economic and historical context Just before 1848 Revolution, Marx says in the development of Bourgeois class there are 2 phases to distinguish: (i) One which constitutes support Absolute Monarchy (ii) The one which constitutes itself as class, overthrows Feudalism and it establishes its own political rule (Bourgeois Rule) The 1st phase lasted for 3 centuries from 16th C – 18th C The 2nd phase roughly from 1780’s to 1840’s. Actually 1789-1848 is called the Ag of Revolution. During the 1st phase, when it is still constituting itself – their philosophical spokesmen are found in NL school – i.e. Hobbes, Locke etc. – Notion of Justice and equality show the core they argue for change against status quo. The philosophy is metaphysical but revolutionary because it is fighting for change against the status quo. 2nd Phase: The triumph/victory of the Bourgeoisie. In this phase – consolidation of the Bourgeoisie clan at the political level - this found expression in the French Revolution 1789...
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...CLASSICAL V. POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY There are two schools of thoughts when dealing with criminology, they are; classical and positivist criminology. The two meaning entirely the opposite, classical criminology is based on committing crimes by “free will” while positivist criminology deals with committing crime due to the impact of one’s’ environment. Cesare Beccaria helped make the present day Judicial System what it is; his thought process was in the beliefs of the classical theory. The Classical criminology theory is established on the thought process that committing a crime is a “choice” that individuals make on their own. It is only human nature to know the difference of right from wrong; the classical view depicts that one “knowingly” decides to do wrong not caring the consequences. This is where Cesare Beccaria comes into play, he decided that “do the crime, pay the time”, he felt that one’s punishment should be as just and fair pertaining to the crime itself; this is why all punishments have certain mandatory sentences imposed on them. Beccaria however, did not believe in capital punishment, he felt has though that it is not man’s job to inflict death upon another. Casare Lombroso is commended on creating this type of criminology notated as positivist; he unlike Beccaria did believe in capital punishment, and disagreed with Beccaria's perceptions on punishments being fit for the type of crime committed, and stated that instead, the punishments should...
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...Law, K.Y. School of Arts and Social Sciences The Open University of Hong Kong Abstract The paper reviews the main difference between scientific investigation and non-scientific investigation and the change of the scientific principles from different approach. In the first section of the text, the author describes the definitions of scientific investigation and non-scientific investigation and the different of both researches. Furthermore, Using the example to explain the difference between the two, so that a better understanding. The second section of this study is to present three styles of scientific principles; it’s divided to positivist search, interpretive search and critical search. It’s analyze the different of the above search and described their characteristic and feature Introduction Scientific investigation is the way in which scientists and researchers use a systematic approach to answer questions about the world around the people. A scientific investigation is an empirical (measurable) study of a question using the scientific method. The main parts are listed below: (1) problem: the question people intend to answer, (2) hypothesis: the best anticipated guess to the outcome of the question, (3) experiment: study is carried out and the results are measured, (4) Results: the data/information measured during the experiment is organized in a meaningful way. Charts/graphs/tables are made, (5)discussion/analysis: the results are interpreted...
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...by an intelligent being having power over him. A body of rules fixed and enforced by a sovereign political authority." Professor Hart defined law as a system of rules, a union of primary and secondary rules. Positivism emphasizes the separation of law and morality. Thomas Hobbes can be credited to be the father of legal positivism. According to Hobbes , in the state of nature there is “a war of every man against every man, a state of constant strife in which the life of man was solitary, poor, nasty, brutal and short. Law and the government therefore became necessary to promote order and personal security.” According to legal positivists, law is man-made, or “posited,” by the legislature. Where natural law theorists may say that if a law is not moral there is no obligation to obey it, by appealing to moral or religious principles, but positivists hold that until a duly enacted law is changed, it remains law, and should be obeyed. Legal positivism regards law as a system of clearly defined rules, the law is defined by the social rules or practices that identify certain norms as laws. Jeremy Bentham philosopher and proposed the Utilitarian principle which means that the law should create “the greatest happiness of the greatest number”. Bentham had little time for natural law. Bentham argued that a utilitarian view of the law is that the law should produce the best consequences utilitarian approach is most often seen the relation between law and economics where the law...
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...Positivism means “scientific” and positivist methodologies argue it’s possible and desirable to study social behaviour in ways similar to those used by natural scientists to study behaviour in the natural world. Positivism A basic principle is that social systems consist of structures that exist independently of individuals; they represent behaviour at the institutional level of society and people experience structures as forces that push us to behave in ways that shape our individual behavioural choices. Example: The rules of language structure the way we socially interact. Systems Actions The forces shaping social behaviour can be discovered using similar methods to those used in sciences such as Physics - systematic observations that create highly reliable knowledge, organised and tested using something like Popper’s HypotheticoDeductive model of research. Study of the causes of behaviour (social structures) rather than their effects (the different choices people make). Structures are real and objective forces; although they can’t be seen, their effects can be (empirically) observed. Reality Methods Quantitative methods are generally favoured because they allow for the collection of factual data. Objectivity Facts The researcher should not directly interact with the people they are studying since this might influence their behaviour (non-participant observation is acceptable, but participant observation is more problematic)...
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...theory is “a set of related propositions that suggest why events occur”. We can define theory as "Statement of a relationship between two or more propositions and concepts . which explains and/or predicts some behavior ". Introduction to Theories of criminology : There are many "theories" of criminology suggested by many writers. It would not be practical to list them all. a few only that have received some support. The almost prominent schools of criminology Were : The Classical School, "which began about 1755 to 1764" after Beccaria (1738-94) published his famous Essay on Crimes and Punishments; Along with Beccaria, the thinkers of the Classical School were Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jeremy Bentham, William Blackstone, Samuel Romilly, and others. The Positive School, " which began after the publication of Lombroso's L'uomo Delinquente (The Criminal Man) in (1896-97). Along with Lombroso, the thinkers of the Positive School were Enrico Ferri (1856-1928), Rafaele Garofalo (1852-34), and others. The Social Schools which began in 1889, after Colayanni published his famous Essay . _____________ (1) Franklin P. Williams III and Marilyn D McShane , Criminological theory , A Paramount Communications Company ,...
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...Chapter 8 Logical Positivism I want neither that plutocracy grasping and mean, nor that democracy goody and mediocre, occupied solely in turning the other cheek, where would dwell sages without curiosity, who, shunning excess, would not die of disease, but would surely die of ennui. — Poincar´ (quoted in Runes, ToP, p. 966) e Science itself, therefore, may be regarded as a minimal problem, consisting of the completest possible presentment of facts with the least possible expenditure of thought. — Mach (Newman, WM, Vol. 3, p. 1792) 8.1 Historical Background In this chapter we will look at logical positivism, the most influential phi- Logical Analysis losophy of science in the twentieth century. In spite of the fact that logical positivism has been abandoned by most philosophers of science, its influence continues in many disciplines, including physics, linguistics and psychology. We will be especially concerned with logical positivism’s view of knowledge, which is, roughly: (1) the only real knowledge is scientific knowledge; (2) by a process of logical analysis scientific knowledge can be reduced to symbolic formulas constructed from “atomic facts.” Certainly assertion (1) is nothing new; Socrates said as much when he distinguished “scientific knowledge” 303 304 Empiricism Anglo-American Roots Continental Roots Auguste Comte: 1798–1857 CHAPTER 8. LOGICAL POSITIVISM (episteme) from a “practice” (empeiria); see Section 2.4.3. Furthermore...
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...Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), was considered as the “father of criminology”. He created the positivistic school of criminology. Lombroso’s basic idea was that many criminals are born criminal, and they are evolutionary throwbacks to an earlier form of life. It maintains that the antisocial tendencies of criminals are the result of their physical and psychic organization, which differs essentially from that of normal individuals; and it aims at studying the morphology and various functional phenomena of the criminal with the object of curing instead of punishing. The Positivist School of Criminology didn’t disagree with the Classical School that most crime could be explained through human nature, they argued that individuals who failed to evolve to a fully human and civilized state committed the most serious crimes. Early positivist believed the shape of the skull was a key determination of behavior. Crime therefore resulted not from what criminals had in common with others in society, but from their distinctive physical or mental defects. I believe that when it comes to reducing crime, classical criminology is the way to go. It ties in closely with the rational choice theory. . People always act in a way that gives them pleasure rather than pain. If the pleasures of an action outweigh the pains, the result is the action. Criminals are those who judge the pleasures of crime to be greater than their pains. The problem for society, then, is how to weigh the system in favor...
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...Sociological Theories of Crime AIU Online April 9, 2016 There are many theories as to why one commits acts of crime. Some of the theories revolve around socialism. Others involve theoretical assertions based on socioeconomic status. And another has basis on personal attributes and rationale to thought in motive. There are also different thoughts to explaining criminal behaviors, one being classical school of thought and the other being a positivist school of thought. For the focus of this paper we will be looking at the four main theories: Social control theory, Strain theory, Differential Association Theory, and Neutralization theory. Social control theory is the theory that those who engage in socializing or social learning build self-control and lessens the likelihood of antisocial behavior. This theory also explains the conformity of behavior accepted in society. Anti-social behavior due to lack of social links within society lend strong indications to criminal behaviors. Travis Hirschi’s held this same theory of ‘‘social control’’ stating that if a man is not variously bound to society by some attachment, commitment, or involvement, he is, at risk criminally. (Muraven, 2006) One of the strengths in this theory is the recognition of wrongdoing by offenders. With the recognition of wrongdoing should come the accountability of action. Therein lies the weakness to this theory as accountability for one’s actions tends to be ignored in today’s society, easily dismissed...
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...Kuhn's Challenge of the Logical Positivism Viewpoint In Kuhn's book, he argues that there are three phases to the scientific discipline. The first is immature science. It does not yet have a paradigm, consisting of many competing schools who all hold a small bit of truth and are trying to prove why their theory has more merit than the others. Once the paradigm is adopted however, the discipline can move into normal science. Much of the experiments and work done is correcting measurements, trying to uphold the current paradigm, and seeking out new experiments and data that must exist according to the paradigm. Kuhn then explains the third phase, scientific revolution. This is when the previous paradigm is overturned and replaced by a new paradigm. He explains that revolutionary science is vastly different than normal science. Normal science is about forcing nature to fit scientific theories, instead of the other way around. Normal science is also engrossed in collecting new data, experiments, theories, and puzzle pieces that will support a certain theory. He explains that revolutions are brought about as a crisis in the science field. The revolutions are total and completely replace a previous paradigm. They are usually sudden and unpredictable, brought on by a puzzle piece that just doesn't fit the rest of the pieces. He explains that complexity is a requisite for change in his quote, “Given a particular discrepancy, astronomers were invariably able to eliminate it by making...
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