The Stigma of Mental Illness and its Effects
It appears that negative views of mental illness are common with in the public. According to Overton & Medina people suffering from mental illness are often portrayed as weird, defensive, and sometimes hard to talk to. According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary (1990), mental illness is defined as, “mentally distorted, mad, or crazy” (Russel, 1990). Generally, concepts about mental illness tend to be subjective, leading to difficulties in defining mental illness. Johnstone (2001) gives a broader definition of mental illness, believing that mental illness relates to the individuals spectrum of cognitions, emotions, and behaviors that damper relationships required for work, home, and in the learning facilities (Johnstone, 2001). This definition is also referenced in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed; DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994), which categorizes the symptoms that are used to diagnose mental illness (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Stigmatizing individuals with mental illness are causing these individuals to suffer loss of employment, housing, and stereotyping, and prejudice. There have been many different thoughts this is not research on the topic of stigma due to mental illness. This study discusses the true definitions of stigma, causes, effects, impact of the programs all ready in place, and what can be done to change the perception of the general public .
Individuals with mental illness are among the most stigmatized, disadvantaged, and vulnerable members of our society today (Johnstone, 2001). Overton & Medians Research addressed mental illness, and the barriers that are formulated as a result of stigma. Overton & Medina (2008) used current research and theory as tools to identify techniques counselors can use to decrease mental illness stigmatization. How do they do this – what exactly did they study and show? Overton & Median discuss to what end? how Social identity theory developed by Goffman, relates to mental illness, due to the history of mental illness being viewed as a moral or character flaw. Goffman’s concepts of stigmatized people forms a virtual social identity after being labeled as disfavored and then become outcasts how does a theory form a social identity? (Overton & Medina, 2008). Social identity theory is Delete: a theory based on the perception of an individual’s behaviors based on societal norms. The next next for what? theory is self-stigma and refers to, an individual that internalize cultural norms and identify themselves as unfit. The third third theory for what? theory refers to structural stigma, which explores stigma within a culture and how it works as a system. Theories about stigma formulate based on the stigma process . This process what process? involves a chronological sequence that consists of: (a) the recognition of cues that a person has a mental illness, (b) activation of stereotypes, and (c) prejudice or discrimination against that person (Corrigan P. , 2004). Delete the “P” Overton & Medina (2008) found that after being labeled mentally ill, it is more likely they will be underemployed and earn less than people with the same mental illness, but who have not been identified as having them (Overton & Medina, 2008). Overton & Medina (2008) states that in different cultures it is normal for others to perceive people with mental illness, as dangerous and violent, which leads to prejudice against people with mental illnesses (2008) delete year. Examples of ways in which structural stigma impacts people with mental illness are as follows, structural stigma makes employment opportunities slim, limitations on finding adequate shelter, barriers to obtaining treatments services, including negative attitudes of mental health professionals, and the role of the media in perpetuating the negative image of people with mental illness(2008) this is a collection of sentence fragments all using different tenses, also, you have the year with no author. Who is the subject? Do not use progressive tense. Entering into treatment can also be a barrier to services. Less that 30% of people with mental health diagnosis actually seek treatment, and approximately 40% of people who had a serious diagnosis and who attempted to get treatment, failed to obtain treatment (Martin, Pescosolida, & Tuch, 2000)(2008).
To foster change Corrigan & Penn (1991), Overton & Medina (2008) suggest three areas of involvement, (a) protest, (b) education, (c) contact. Protest is defined as a complaint or an objective (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1990, p. 418). However, protest, may be promoting these stereotypes what?? (Corrigan & Penn, 1999) (2008). Education is used to counteract the myths of mental illness, but Couture and Penn (2003) found that education in what way, of whom? changes attitudes, but has little effect on behavior (Overton & Medina, 2008). Overton & Medina conclude that more research is needed to study changes they have suggested, and that the mental health professionals need to address the issue of stigma within social psychiatry. How and with whom?
There are many studies in social psychiatry that have displayed the role that cultural beliefs play in shaping societies society’s responses to mental illnesses. Link, Phelan, Bresnahan, Stueve, & Pesocolido (1999) examined how the public’s recognition of mental illness and perceived causes, dangerousness, and desired social distance affect responses to mental illness and what did they show? .
Using Vignette experiments from the 1996 General Social Survey to collect data Link et al. assigned 1of 5 vignette conditions. “Four vignettes described psychiatric disorders meeting diagnostic criteria, and the fifth depicted a “troubled person” with sub-clinical problems and worries” (Link, Phelan, Bresnahan, Stueve, & Pesocolido, 1999). The study showed differences between what the public and psychiatric professionals view as mental illness (1999). The four vignettes that described disorders where people portraying schizophrenia, major depression, alcohol dependence, and drug users. The fifth depicting a “troubled person” had sub-clinical problems and worries (1999). Link et al., suggest that the fifth vignette shows us the extent that the public discriminates between mental disorders and mild forms of normal troubles (1999).
The results showed that the public have strong fears about the violence of individuals with mental illness. 88% seen schizophrenia, and 69% seen major depression as a mental illness and wanted little interaction with these individuals what? This does not make sense.(Link, Phelan, Bresnahan, Stueve, & Pesocolido, 1999) Link and colleagues stated that optimism is good, however, stereotyping, distance and perceived of dangerousness still persist.This does not make sense. This outcome is negative and will continue to affect individuals with mental illness. Integrating educational interventions in to cultural experiences at a young age may help diminish the stigma of mental illness .
Educational interventions to reduce stigmatizing of individual with mental illness have not been examined passive voice in depth to determine the reduction in stigma. (Boysen & Vogel, 2008). Boysen & Vogel looks at what causes the stigma of mental disorders, attitudes, and how effective methods what methods? are of improving lives of people with mental illness (2008). Boysen & Vogel (2008) purpose of this study what study? was to look at how educational information, types of mental illness, and how attitudes impact stigmatizing attitudes due to the lack of research done on wither or not the interventions have worked with different disorders this is not clear (2008).
Boysen & Vogel (2008) current current means not complete study used previous research on mental health stigma by using two different disorders (schizophrenia and addiction), and measuring the impact of the information what information? on stigma (Boysen & Vogel, 2008). Also, the study looks for biases in how certain people process the educational information. Allowing for a better understanding of effective methods in reducing stigmatizing attitudes through education, and with the illness being controlled (Boysen & Vogel, 2008). Boysen & Vogel discovered depending on the disorder students were less likely to have negative attitudes toward mental illness. For example, it was discovered that students viewed schizophrenia as a mental illness that was not controllable so did not show negative attitudes. Whereas, addiction was controllable and seen with negative attitudes because it was their fault. Individuals in the study were asked to read about mental illness biological explanations, or psychosocial explanations. The group consisted of 232 subjects, 88 male, 139 female, 5 not reporting a sex. Boysen & Vogel (2008) used three measures, stigmatizing attitudes about mental illness and addiction, persuasiveness of educational information, and attention measures.
Results from exploring preliminary attitudes about mental disorders discovered that several things. First, attitudes where on the positive side of the rating scale, and participants disagreed that mental illness is a sign of weakness. Secondly, social distance items showed that individuals will live in an area with treatments centers. (Boysen & Vogel, 2008). Boysen & Vogel (2008) states that stigma should be addressed in early years of school before young adulthood, because the participants of the study already had well established attitudes about mental illness.
Stigma has many negative effects that rob people of opportunities within their communities. Advocates of mental illness have done many investigations into what stigma is, and how to diminish it (2011). Governments from different countries have started large based programs to change how stigma is viewed. Australia, Canada, and the UK all have programs through the World Psychiatric Association. Also, most of the U.S. has followed in their lead and now has anti-stigma programs (2011). According to Corrigan & Shapiro (2011) research is need to see if these programs are impacting the stigma of mental illness. Corresponding research related to behavior, penetration, psychological perspective, knowledge, and physiological/information processes where used. Corrigan & Shapiro summarized these issues into ten recommendations for evaluation of anti-stigma programs (Corrigan & Shapiro, 2011).
Advocates agree the stigma of mental illnesses effect everyone and must be challenged (Corrigan & Shapiro, 2011). Corrigan & Shapiro state that stigma is only one form of prejudice, and labeling and self stigma offer their own understanding to stigma and need their own measurements (2011). In addition, they addressed stigma change with the social psychological models that are more reliable to readers (2011). “Research needs to incorporate other paradigms for models about stigma to mature” (Corrigan & Shapiro, 2011).
Stigma separates individuals with mental illness for the communities, and judgments are made making them feel less than (Martin, Lang, & Olafsdottir, 2008). Martin, Lang, & Olafsdottir look at the policies facilitated on stigma and mental disorders using a framework to bring together theoretical approaches from macro, meso, and micro research (2008). This is referred to as the Framework Integration Normative Influences on Stigmas (FINIS). “While there may be many ways to document the multiplicity of forces at work in establishing and maintaining stigma, the FINIS framework focuses on the central theorem that several different levels of social life-micro or psychological and socio-culture level or individual factors; and macro or societal wide factors set the normative expectations that play out in the process of stigmatization” (2008).
While looking at the theoretical framework of stigma, Martin, Lang, & Olafsdottir (2008) stated that stigma research would be incomplete without looking at organizations that deal with societal problems (Martin, Lang, & Olafsdottir, 2008). Advocacy groups are concerned about the treatment and labeling that accurse with stigma in mental health and how labeling does more harm the good to clients (2008). “Corrigan (2007) suggests that the very assignment of a diagnosis may have the unintentional consequence of triggering stereotypes, including the notion that people with mental illness cannot recover”( 2008).
Martin, Lang, & Olafsdottir (2008) conclude research on stigma is vital to the efforts to give individuals with mental illness the chance to live productive and normal lives in society. (Attkisson, Cook, Karno, Lehman, McGlashan, Meltzer et al., 1992:619) (2008). Using FINIS the Martin et al. attempts to explain why stigma reductions have failed, and that the type and quality of the contact is what really affects reduction. “FINIS provides a point of view, a set of assumptions and a conceptual map to understand this pervasive process” (2008), and be applied to any stigmatizing condition if it is altered to meet that criteria. All stereotypes come from “social fact” made up or true. For instance, the stereotype all individuals with a mental illness are dangerous or violent (2008). This however is not the truth. According to the MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study, only co-morbid individuals of drugs and alcohol show signs of being violent or dangerous (Monhan, Steadman, Silver, Appelbaum, Robbins, Mulvey et al., 2001) (2008).
In conclusion, hope seems to be carrying the research of mental illness stigma to new heights. Stigma still effects millions of individuals dealing with mental illness, and taking away opportunities for a better life. However, no direct answers have been made on how to diminish mental health stigma. Protest, education, and contact have been research time and again. The research shows that more research is needed in order to change beliefs of the general public. Link et al. (1999) & Martin et al. (2008) both suggest that violence is related to the social stigma of mental illness and to change the stigma or perception contact with individuals is needed (Link, Phelan, Bresnahan, Stueve, & Pesocolido, 1999) (Martin, Lang, & Olafsdottir, 2008).
Link states that violence is linked to mental illness due to attitudinal social distance (2008). Barney, Overton & Medina both relate the stigma of mental disorders to the professional sources (Barney, Griffiths, Christensen, & Jorm, 2009) (Overton & Medina, 2008). Barney et al. states that programs to hinder stigma should be based in public health programs, and that further research needs to be done (2009). Overton & Medina suggest that different train be applied to clinicians to stop the development of stigma. However, Overton et al. (2008) & Barney et al. (2009) both agree that changes are needed to ensure that professionals “address the issues of stigma related to mental illness.
Future research seems to be a repetitive motion with mental illness stigma. Boysen & Vogel (2008) & Corrigan & Shapiro (2010) all agree that there are limitations to the studies. First, Boysen & Vogel (2008) stated that a more powerful intervention would have affected participants dramatically. “Ultimately, advocates want strategies that derail the various kinds of stigma. The Investigators must partner with these stakeholders to provide information about the best way to erase the stigma (Corrigan & Shapiro, 2011).

References
(1994). American Psychiatric Association. In Diangostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington D.C.
Barney, L. J., Griffiths, K. M., Christensen, H., & Jorm, A. F. (2009). Exploring the nature of stigmatising beliefs about depression and help-seeking:Implications for reducing stigma. BMC Public Health , 1-11.
Boysen, G. A., & Vogel, D. L. (2008). Education and Mental Health Stigma: The Effects of Attribution, Biased Assimilation, and Attitued Polarization. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 447-470.
Corrigan, P. (2004). How stigma interferes with mental health care. American Psychologist, 614-625.
Corrigan, P. W., & Shapiro, J. R. (2011). Measuring the Impact of Programs that Challenge the Public Stigma of Mental Illness. Clinical Psychology Review, 1-33.
Johnstone, M. (2001). Stigma, social justice and the rights of the mentally ill: Challenging the status quo. Australian and New Sealand Journal oof Mental Health Nursing, 200-209.
Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., Bresnahan, M., Stueve, A., & Pesocolido, B. A. (1999). Public Conceptions of Mental Illness: Labels, Causes, Dangerousness, adn Social Distance. American Journal of public Health, 1328-1333.
Martin, J. K., Lang, A., & Olafsdottir, S. (2008). Rethinking Theoretical Approaches to Stigma: A Framework Integrating Normative Influences on Stigma (FINIS). Social Science Medicine, 1-17.
Overton, S. L., & Medina, S. L. (2008). The Stigma of Mental Illness. Journal of Counceling & Development, 143-151.
Russel, G. &. (1990). The Marriam-Webster Dictinary. New York.