Steam gauge cockpits versus glass cockpits. Which system is more effective?

Effectiveness of glass cockpits and steam gauge cockpits for student pilots

STEAM GAUGE COCKPITS VERSUS GLASS COCKPITS

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Table of Contents
Table of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 5
2.0 Background Information ........................................................................................................................ 7
2.1 Steam Gauge Cockpits ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Glass Cockpits ....................................................................................................................................... 8
3.0 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 9
.
3.1 Primary Research ................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Secondary Research ............................................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 9
5.0 Analysis ............................................................................................................................................... 12
5.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 12
5.2 Analysis ............................................................................................................................................... 13
a.

Upward compatibility ........................................................................................................................ 13

b.

Maintainability .................................................................................................................................. 14
.

c.

Pilotage .............................................................................................................................................. 15

d.

Communication systems .................................................................................................................... 16

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 17
References ................................................................................................................................................. 18
Appendix A: Online Survey Questions ..................................................................................................... 19
Appendix B: Questionnaire ....................................................................................................................... 19

STEAM GAUGE COCKPITS VERSUS GLASS COCKPITS

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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Response to Online Survey Question (What is the difference between a glass cockpit and a steam gauge cockpit?) ......................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2: Response to Online Survey Question (Which cockpit do you prefer?) ........................ 13
Figure 3: Graph of difference in upward compatibility ................................................................ 14
Figure 4: Graph of difference in maintainability .......................................................................... 15
Figure 5: Graph of difference in pilotage ..................................................................................... 15
Figure 6: Graph of difference in communication systems ............................................................ 16

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Abstract
The differences between steam gauge cockpits and glass cockpits are apparent. However, the debate on the effectiveness of either of the types of cockpits has been a key aspect in the aviation industry. This paper will provide a comprehensive comparative analysis of the two designs of a cockpit. A literature review of past studies that provide a comparative analysis is also incorporated. The research design methodology adopted was a quantitative research design. An online survey was carried out in addition to questionnaires which were distributed to groups of experienced respondents and the results analyzed. Graphical representations of the descriptive statistics obtained from both the online survey and questionnaires were instrumental in analysis.
The paper concludes that the glass cockpit is more effective than the steam gauge cockpit in terms of improving the pilot’s situational awareness. However, there are reservations regarding the transition from the steam gauge cockpit to the glass cockpit as well as the training of pilots.

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1.0 Introduction
An aircraft’s cockpit consists of a number of instruments which inform the pilot on flight parameters like direction of flight, the speed at which the plane is flying as well as the altitude at which it is flying (NASA). These parameters are very important in aviation, especially for flight control, since there are no visible flight paths to be followed by pilots in the skies. Flight paths are dictated by these parameters, making the instruments very crucial especially in conditions of poor visibility. The importance of these instruments is further stressed by the fact that it is possible to fly an aircraft without having visual reference outside the cockpit. This was first done in 1929, when a pilot flew and landed an aircraft using information from these instruments alone.
The older generation of aircrafts used pumps that were vacuum driven, in addition to mechanical gyroscopes that were used to give information regarding the aircraft’s situation and course of direction (Aircraft Instrumentation - The "Steam Gauge" Cockpit , 2007). This information would then be projected onto analogue gauges for reading by the pilot. These gauges, popularly known as steam gauges, were not powered by steam. They instead got this name due to their resemblance to the dial- type gauges found in the olden day trains that used to be powered by steam engines. With such instruments, the flight crew was required to do numerous calculations in order to derive flight data, creating the need for a flight engineer.
Glass cockpits are a new generation of cockpits that use electronic liquid crystal display (LCD) screens instead of the mechanical gauges used in steam gauge cockpits. These LCD displays can be customized as required to display flight information, hence making navigation easy. These cockpits contain in-built computers which make calculations and process flight data which is then displayed onto LCD displays for reading by the pilot. The computers are very accurate, surpassing by far, the ability of mechanical gauges used in previous cockpits.
Over the years, aircraft cockpit design has focused on improving the ease of use as well as the accuracy of data presentation. The conventional analogue steam gauge cockpits have been replaced by the digital electronic displays found in modern cockpits. The enhanced capabilities of these glass cockpits have made aircraft control a lot easier and safer (National Transportation
Safety Board (NTSB), 2010).
This analytical report will provide a comprehensive comparative analysis of the two types of cockpits highlighting their merits and the demerits. There are multiple parameters that will be used to perform the comparative analysis of the effectiveness of the cockpits. The word effective implies that the instrumental contained in the cockpit are able to achieve all the objectives they are aimed at achieving. Through a compare and contrast approach between the steam gauge system and the glass system the parameter ratings for each will be analyzed. The key parameters to be put into consideration include;
1. Upward compatibility
2. Maintainability

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3.
4.
5.
6.

Pilotage
Robustness
System elements
Communications systems

A comparative of the six key elements will be used to determine the effectiveness of either of the cockpits. It is pertinent to note that a face value the modern glass cockpits looks complicated to individuals used to the steam gauge cockpits. The steam gauge cockpits are predominant in the old general aviation platforms. The primary flight displays are key in determination of the effectiveness of either of the cockpit types. The perceptions among players in the aviation industry play a significant role in achieving the objectives of the different systems. The shift from analog systems or hybrids to fully digital systems within the cockpits is highly influenced by human factors and perception. There is a generational difference between pilots who underwent training through aircrafts with steam gauge instrumentation and those who went through training using the glass cockpits.

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2.0 Background Information
The historical aviation cockpit is filled with multiple steam gauge instruments. Over the years the modification of aircraft instrumentation has been enormous. From the 1950s the round dial technology was predominant in all cockpits. The steam gauge technology was used to present different flight information on separate dials within the cockpit. The pilot is guided by the different dials spread across the cockpit. Over the years, aircraft cockpit design has focused on improving the ease of use as well as the accuracy of data presentation.
2.1 Steam Gauge Cockpits
The instruments in a steam gauge cockpit are arranged in a standard T- pattern. According to
(Aircraft Instrumentation - The "Steam Gauge" Cockpit , 2007), the arrangement consists of;
(a) The pitot static instruments which include;
• An altimeter which displays the height above the sea level at which the aircraft is flying. • An airspeed indicator which is used to display the aircraft’s speed in knots in relation to the air around the aircraft. The indicated value represents the speed of the aircraft in air. This is measured by the Pitot tube found within the aircraft.
• A vertical speed indicator which detects the rate of descent or climb by measuring changes in air pressure.
(b) The gyroscopic instruments which include;
• A heading indicator which displays the aircraft’s direction of flight in reference to the geographical north.
• A turn coordinator which detects the rate and direction of turn and whether the turn is well coordinated.
• An attitude indicator which is used to determine the nature of the aircraft’s flight position in relation to the horizon. It represents the degree to which the wings bank as well as the degree of the aircraft’s nose elevation.
Other instruments may include a magnetic compass, a course deviation indicator as well as a radio magnetic indicator.
The instruments form a T- arrangement with the airspeed indicator being on the top left, an attitude indicator on the upper central part while the altimeter is found on the right beside the altitude indicator. The turn coordinator is found below the airspeed indicator while the vertical speed indicator is located below the altimeter (Aircraft Instrumentation - The "Steam Gauge"
Cockpit , 2007).

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Image 1: The T arrangement of instruments. Clockwise from the top left; Airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, Altimeter, vertical speed indicator, heading indicator and turn indicator, Adapted from Aircraft instrumentation- The “Steam Gauge”
Cockpit, 2007 (http://www.cap-ny153.org/aircraftinstrumentation.htm)

2.2 Glass Cockpits
The development of glass cockpits was brought about by the need to replace cramped cockpits that had numerous indicators and symbols with less crammed cockpits. The end result was the creation of electronic flight displays. Glass cockpits are a new generation of cockpits that use electronic LCD displays instead of the mechanical gauges used in steam gauge cockpits. These
LCD displays can be customized as required to display flight information, hence making navigation easy (Chambers, 2010). The cockpits contain in-built computers which make calculations and process flight data which is then displayed onto LCD displays where it can be read by the pilot. The computers are very accurate, surpassing by far, the ability of mechanical gauges used in previous cockpits.

Image 2: Glass cockpit of Airbus A-320, Adapted from Aircraft instrumentation- The “Steam Gauge” Cockpit, 2007
(http://www.cap-ny153.org/aircraftinstrumentation.htm)

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3.0 Methodology
A two level research study was conducted and the collected data analyzed to give a comparison of steam gauge cockpits to glass cockpit systems.
3.1 Primary Research
The key parameters that describe effectiveness and performance of the different types of aircrafts were used as the reference point for the primary study. These parameters include;
7. Upward compatibility
8. Maintainability
9. Pilotage
10. Robustness
11. System elements
12. Communications systems
The approach selected for the primary research was the use of online surveys as well as questionnaires which were distributed to groups of experienced respondents. The experienced experts gave an opinion form a professional point of view.
The questionnaire respondents were aviation industry players who included;
1. Students of aviation schools
2. Pilots
3. Aeronautical technicians and engineers
The two methods were used to obtain information and opinions on the two cockpit systems, namely the steam gauge and glass cockpit systems. The questionnaire consisted of questions with multiple choices, where respondents were required to pick a single response. The online survey was hosted on Survey Monkey (https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/PPQ5ZTF). A total of forty five (45) respondents took part in the online survey conducted in one week.
3.2 Secondary Research
Other information and data collection methods instrumental in providing background information in the subject matter were used to collect information. Search engines like Google and online databases like ebscohost were used to find articles on the study topic. This proved very useful as it provided insight on the two cockpit systems in addition to findings obtained in previous studies that were of great use in the study.
3.3 Limitations
It was very difficult to obtain some proprietary information from aircraft manufacturers since they felt the need to protect their competitive advantage. Moreover, the primary data was not collected from different geographical regions. This implies that there was limited diversity in terms of manufacturer exposure. However, this does not invalidate the results of the primary research. STEAM GAUGE COCKPITS VERSUS GLASS COCKPITS

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4.0 Literature Review/ Facts
The basic principle of operation of the steam gauge instruments is simple. A series of air tubes are interconnected with wires and gyroscopes which in turn push mechanical gears for the movement of round dials. Being the most predominant technology in the past decades and the foundation of aviation instrumentation, the steam gauge cockpits have been used to train pilots.
However, since the beginning of the new millennium airplane manufacturers have shifted towards digital instrumentation. Digital signals are used for representation of different flight parameters. These parameters are displayed in multidimensional displays such as a cathode ray tube screen. They displays are multidimensional in nature because they incorporate many parameters within a single screen.
It is pertinent to note that, at face value, the modern glass cockpits look complicated to individuals used to steam gauge cockpits. The steam gauge cockpits are predominant in the old general aviation platforms. The primary flight displays are key in determination of the effectiveness of either of the cockpit types. The perceptions among players in the aviation industry play a significant role in achieving the objectives of the different systems. The shift from analog systems or hybrids to fully digital systems within the cockpits is highly influenced by human factors and perception.
There is a generational difference between pilots who underwent training through aircrafts with steam gauge instrumentation and those who went through training using the glass cockpits. This advancement of technology and a change of all the visual instrumentation presents a significant challenge. The challenge is that the most experienced commercial aircraft pilots underwent training with the steam gauge cockpits. They have over the years acquired the sixth sense in using this system to a situation where their situational awareness is at its best. The transition to the glass cockpits might compromise their effectiveness since they will be operating in uncharted waters (Infante, Gomes, & Branco, 2010).
It is therefore clear that the steam gauge instrumentation presented the pilot with the aircraft position relative to the ground both laterally and vertically. The cognitive process involved in this determination involved time, altitude and space elements of the cognitive orientation of an individual. On the other hand, the glass cockpit visual displays incorporate a moving map which is hard to conceptualize using the same cognitive processes as in the steam gauge cockpit.
Therefore, the pilot is expected to have a good scanning technique and have an appropriate situational awareness. In the long run the effectiveness of the modern technically advanced instrumentation displays is challenged.
The transition from the old steam gauge instrumentation to the digital visual displays where moving maps are incorporated is difficult. A comparative study on the accident rates in technologically advanced aircrafts compared to the steam gauge cockpit types indicated that there is a high risk of occurrence of an accident in the modernized aircrafts. The question on the

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ability of adults to learn new advanced technology on the glass type cockpits arises every time there is an incident. Another aspect that ought to be a key factor on the effectiveness of different cockpits is the change of role of the pilot. In the steam gauge cockpit, the pilot was in charge of the movement of the aircraft. However, with the new glass cockpit the pilot is reduced to a systems operator (Reinhart, 2008).

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5.0 Analysis
5.1 Scope
A total of forty five (45) respondents took part in the online survey conducted in one week. A sample size of thirty respondents was picked and their responses to the questionnaire regarding upward compatibility, maintainability, pilotage, robustness, system elements and communications systems were analyzed.
In the online survey, the first question “What is the difference between a glass cockpit and a steam gauge cockpit?” was mandatory. Thirty eight out of the forty five respondents demonstrated a clear understanding and deep knowledge on the study topic. They gave a precise and satisfactory difference between steam gauge and glass cockpits. The remaining seven demonstrated ignorance on the research topic. The rest of their responses were therefore not considered in making a conclusion. The sample size, plus the high percentage of informed responses, gives credibility to the survey data.

Knowledge on Steam gauge and Glass cockpits

Conversant- 38
Oblivious- 7

Figure 1: Response to Online Survey Question (What is the difference between a glass cockpit and a steam gauge cockpit?)

The second question in the online survey required respondents to state their preferred cockpit.
Thirty six of them prefer the glass cockpit design while nine prefer the steam gauge cockpit.
The last two questions of the online survey were open-ended and required the respondents to state what they liked or disliked about the steam gauge and glass cockpits. Those who liked steam gauge cockpits stated that the analogue gauges driven by vacuum pumps and mechanical gyroscopes were less likely to malfunction. Those who disliked the glass cockpits stated that the

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computers used to generate flight data were susceptible to malfunction due to re-programming, making their accidents fatal. A bigger percentage liked the superior data display of the digital
LCD screens in glass cockpits and disliked the steam gauge cockpits for being cramped with numerous analogue gauges.

Preferred Cockpit

Steam Gauge- 9
Glass- 36

Figure 2: Response to Online Survey Question (Which cockpit do you prefer?)

5.2 Analysis
a. Upward compatibility
The effectiveness of a cockpit can be rated in terms of its compatibility with new instrumentation. There is need for the cockpit equipment’s to be upgraded whenever need arises.
The steam gauge cockpit system is difficult to upgrade. In instances where an upgrade is inevitable, the previous equipment or instrument has to be uninstalled and a new one installed.
Steam gauge cockpits require more upgrade work than glass cockpits. Moreover, alteration of other systems such as the wiring of the cockpit might be necessary. After the completion of the upgrade, a certified inspector should give the aircraft a clean bill of health before it can be allowed to take a flight. On the other hand, for a glass cockpit like that of a G1000, only software changes are made on the external memory and the upgrade is complete.

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Percentage of Respondents

60

Graph of difference in upward compaUbility

50
40
30
Steam gauge

20

Glass
10
0
Strongly
disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

Strongly agree

Upward CompaUble

Figure 3: Graph of difference in upward compatibility

From the graphical representation above, it is clear that about 57 percent of the respondents strongly disagree with the steam gauge cockpit statement on compatibility. On the other hand, about 49 percent of the respondents strongly agree with the glass cockpit statement. This implies that the glass cockpit is more upward compatible than the steam gauge cockpit.
b. Maintainability
Maintainability is a key attribute of performance in any system. For the steam gauge cockpit system, which is based on round dials, it is difficult to identify malfunctions without performing regular check procedures. This is only possible when the aircraft is airborne, posing a great risk.
Moreover, the installation of troubleshooting gauges takes a lot of time, with the minimum time being two hours. On the other hand, a glass cockpit’s trouble shooting process is simple and involves replacing a single unit. However, other procedures have been developed varying from manufacturer to manufacturer to check the stability and functionalities of all elements within the cockpit. STEAM GAUGE COCKPITS VERSUS GLASS COCKPITS

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Percentage of Respondents

70

Graph of Difference in Maintainability

60
50
40

Steam gauge

30

Glass

20
10
0
Strongly
disagree

Disagree Undecided

Agree

Cockpit is Easy to Maintain

Strongly agree Figure 4: Graph of difference in maintainability

Percentage of Respondents

c. Pilotage
The displays within a cockpit should be instrumental in ensuring that the pilot has an appropriate situational awareness. For a steam gauge cockpit, the pilot is expected to keep an eye on at least six different dials. The concentration is on the different gauges. On the other hand, the glass cockpit has two visual LCD displays incorporating the different parameters. For the G1000, the primary flight display which displays key flight information on a 10 inch screen, reduces the distraction of the pilot’s concentration on situational awareness. However, this also depends on the level of training of the pilot and their experience. Pilots who underwent training through the steam gauge cockpits will not be in a position to modify their flight information mental processing. An interview with a leading consultant and pilot instructor revealed that the theoretical benefits presented by manufactures of glass cockpit aircrafts need to be subjected to extensive research for validation (Casner, 2013).

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Graph of Difference in Pilotage
Steam gauge
Glass

Strongly disagree Disagree

Undecided

Pilotage is Enhanced
Figure 5: Graph of difference in pilotage

Agree

Strongly agree

STEAM GAUGE COCKPITS VERSUS GLASS COCKPITS

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From the graphical representation above, it is clear that about 35 percent of the respondents disagree with the steam gauge cockpit statement on pilotage. On the other hand, about 29 percent of the respondents disagree with the glass cockpit statement. However, the results of an interview of four experts showed that the best pilotage is in a steam gauge cockpit. According to the experts the pilot is reduced to a systems operator when in a glass cockpit.
d. Communication systems
Steam gauge aircrafts are fitted with VHF systems. The failure of such a system is hard to identify and resolve. This is because VHF systems do not continuously send signals but only send when it is necessary. On the other hand, glass cockpits are fitted with modern

Percentage of Respondents

communication equipment that offers great performance.

60
50

Graph of Difference in CommunicaUon
Systems

40
30
20

Steam gauge

10

Glass

0
Strongly
disagree

Disagree

Undecided

Agree

CommunicaUon Systems are EffecUve

Strongly agree Figure 6: Graph of difference in communication systems

From the graphical representation above, it is clear that about 53 percent of the respondents disagree with the steam gauge cockpit statement on communication systems. On the other hand, about 50 percent of the respondents agree with the glass cockpit statement. This implies that the glass cockpit has a better communication system compared to the steam gauge cockpit. It is pertinent to note that the interviews conducted on old and experienced industry players revealed a general resistance towards the glass cockpits. This was predominantly associated with the type of training they underwent in the early years of aviation. The shift to the new cockpits requires adequate transition training for the experienced individuals. Moreover, this requires that a shift of their cognitive process when deducing flight information. There is need to differentiate the requirements for flying the different types of aircrafts. Student pilot should be exposed to both the glass cockpits and the traditional steam gauge cockpits. Devices to enhance situational awareness of pilots within the cockpits are pertinent an example is the inboard GWX contained in the G1000.

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Conclusion
In aircrafts with a steam gauge cockpit, the pilot has to analyze each one of the eight main gauges separately. Due to the needle’s rotary nature in each gauge, more time and concentration is needed to keep up with the flight (FAA, 2009, ch.7). On the other hand, a G1000 glass cockpit makes navigation more efficient due to its superior and efficient mode of data presentation.
Instead of scanning and monitoring eight gauges that are widely spread in the cockpit, the primary flight display (PFD) in glass cockpits displays combined data from all the primary flight instruments on a 10 inch screen, thereby enhancing the pilot’s situational awareness by keeping his/her concentration directed at one spot in the cockpit (Garmin, 2004).
However, the aspect of the ability of experienced professionals to learn new technology on the glass type cockpits should be well handled. Otherwise, the experienced professionals will fight the adoption of the new cockpits. The safety factor of the two types of cockpits should also be handled with great care. There is need to eliminate the perception that in a steam gauge cockpit the pilot was in charge of the movement of the aircraft whereas, in the new glass cockpit the pilot is reduced to a systems operator.
The shift to the new cockpits requires adequate transition training for the experienced individuals. Moreover, a shift in their cognitive process when deducing flight information is required. Finally, there is need to differentiate the requirements for flying the different types of aircrafts. Student pilots should also be exposed to both the glass cockpits and the traditional steam gauge cockpits.

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References Aircraft Instrumentation - The "Steam Gauge" Cockpit . (2007). Retrieved 3 18, 2014, from Leroy R.
Grumman Cadet Squadron-Civil Air Patrol - The official auxiliary of the United States Air Force: http://www.cap-ny153.org/aircraftinstrumentation.htm Casner, S. M. (2013). The pilot's guide to the airline cockpit (2nd Ed.). Newcastle, WA: Aviation
Supplies & Academics, Inc...
Chambers, D. (2010, 2 2). Flight Training Fundamentals- What is a glass cockpit? Retrieved 3 19, 2014, from Aviator.edu: http://www.aviator.edu/129/section.aspx/64/post/flight-training-fundamentals what-is-a-glass-cockpit FAA. (2009). Pilot's handbook of aeronautical knowledge, 2009. Oklahoma City, OK: United
States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration.
Garmin. (2004). G1000 cockpit reference guide for Cessna NAV III. Olathe, Kan.: Garmin
International.
Infante, V., Gomes, E., & Branco, C. (2010). Determination of the loading types responsible for the deformed shape of an aircraft cockpit. Engineering Failure Analysis, 17(4), 10081016.
.
NASA - Glass Cockpit Fact Sheet. (n.d.). NASA - Home. Retrieved June 13,
2012,from http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/Glasscockpit.html National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). (2010, March 9). Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics into Light Aircraft. Aviation Safety Study , 10 (1), pp. 1-74.

Reinhart, R. O. (2008). Basic flight physiology (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Appendix A: Online Survey Questions
1. What is the difference between a glass cockpit and a steam gauge cockpit?
2. Which type of cockpit do you prefer?

Steam gauge cockpit

Glass cockpit

3. What do you like/dislike about the steam gauge cockpit?
4. What do you like/dislike about the glass cockpit?

Appendix B: Questionnaire
Kindly select only one option for every statement
a. Steam gauge cockpit are upward compatible
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
b. Glass cockpits are upward compatible
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
c. Steam gauge cockpits are easy to maintain
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
d. Glass cockpit are easy to maintain
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
e. Pilotage in a steam gauge cockpit is enhanced.
1. Strongly disagree
[]

19

STEAM GAUGE COCKPITS VERSUS GLASS COCKPITS

2.
3.
4.
5.

Disagree
Undecided
Agree
Strongly agree

[]
[]
[]
[]

f. Pilotage in a glass cockpit is enhanced
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
g. Steam gauge cockpit have effective communication system
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
h. Glass cockpit have effective communication systems
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
i. Steam gauge cockpit are easy to operate for old and experienced pilots
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
j. Glass cockpit are easy to operate for old and experienced pilots
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]
k. Many cognitive process are required to process flight information in a steam gauge cockpit 1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]

20

STEAM GAUGE COCKPITS VERSUS GLASS COCKPITS

4. Agree
5. Strongly agree

[]
[]

l. Many cognitive process are required to process flight information in a glass cockpit
1. Strongly disagree
[]
2. Disagree
[]
3. Undecided
[]
4. Agree
[]
5. Strongly agree
[]

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